The lecture examines compatibility as a property of lexical units, analyzes typical errors associated with violation of compatibility

Lexical compatibility of words

The lecture examines compatibility as a property of lexical units, and analyzes typical errors associated with violation of compatibility.

Lecture outline

9.1.Word compatibility

9.2. Violation of compatibility

9.3.Types of word combinations

9.4. Violation of compatibility as a stylistic device

9.1. Word collocations

When using words in speech, it is always necessary to take into account the features word combinability- their ability to connect with each other.

The possibilities of compatibility are largely determined by the semantic features of the word and its meaning.

For example, the compatibility of the word strong, used in different meanings, can be represented as follows:

Although the words hatred And envy, like Love, mean "feelings" and rain, heat And humidity, like frost, wind, refer to “weather and climatic conditions”, however, one cannot say: * strong hatred, envy (you can: strong love); * heavy rain, intense heat, humidity (but: strongfreezing).

§ 9 .2. Compatibility violation

The compatibility of a word is determined by the semantic (semantic) features of words, but at the same time it has its own boundaries.

For example:

1) Unlike the word wash, its synonym wash can be combined only with the names of objects made of fabric or having the properties of fabric.

2) Promote we can apply the parameter to high:

high yield - increase productivity;

high speed - increase speed.

Therefore, it is impossible to say: “increase the training of specialists” (only: improve preparation...),“increase the output of machine tools” (increase production of machine tools).

Combinations of words that contain I deny-talking to each other semantic signs: " Due to the upcoming departure." Pretext due to implies that the action has already taken place, but the adjective upcoming suggests the opposite. It should be said: in view of the upcoming departure.

Errors in combinations of words may be due to the fact that one of the words is used only in application to something negative, bad, while the other means, on the contrary, something positive, good. For example: hordes of (-) workers (+); thanks to (+) illness (-).

9 .3. Types of word combinations

As you can see, combining words into phrases can encounter various kinds of restrictions. Depending on the restrictions governing the combination of words, various types of compatibility are distinguished:

1) semantic compatibility;

2) lexical compatibility;

3) stylistic compatibility.

Semantic compatibility is determined by the meaning of words, as well as by subject-logical relationships between objects of the surrounding world. Thus, semantic compatibility is violated in the following examples:

borrow money from someone - word borrow has the meaning “to lend, for temporary use,” so it should have been said: borrow money from someone;

most of the time - word majority combined with words denoting objects that can be counted: painmost writers, most villages, most voices; since the collective meaning contains the concept of a certain number of homogeneous individual objects; the word does not satisfy this condition time, therefore it should be said: most oftime

believe in inevitable victory- word inevitable close in value to word is inevitable, but associated with something undesirable: imminent disaster, imminent war, inevitable hysteriabelle and so on.; should have said: believe in inevitable victory;

priority attention - word priority means “uncomplicated, requiring implementation first”; these meanings are not applicable to the word attention; you can say: main attention, special attention, etc.

Lexical compatibility is determined by the tradition of using words in a language. WITH From the point of view of modern language, it is often difficult or even impossible to explain the reasons for the different compatibility of words with similar meanings: pay attention / attach importance to the development of sports. Many combinations of words are fixed by linguistic tradition. These combinations in “ready form” are included in the vocabulary of native speakers, and the ability to use them is part of a person’s linguistic culture. For example, in Russian they don’t say “to do a feat”, only accomplish a feat.

Often, a violation of lexical compatibility is associated with the incorrect use of polysemantic words:

deep autumn, but not summer, spring;

extreme old age, but not childhood, youth;

deep night, but not day, morning.

Stylistic compatibility is determined by the stylistic and emotional-expressive coloring of the combined words. Stylistically dissimilar words cannot form the correct combination: A new barn was erected on the collective farm and a bathhouse was erected. Book, solemn verbs erect And erect do not combine with nouns barn And bathhouse In this sentence it is better to use the verb built.

9.4. Violation of compatibility as a stylistic device

In artistic and journalistic styles of speech, a violation of the compatibility of words can be used as a stylistic device that enhances the expressiveness of speech. Breaking the usual connections of words can give them new shades of meaning and create vivid artistic images: Poets walk with their heels on the blade of a knife and cut their barefoot souls to blood (V. Vysotsky); “Tomorrow there was war” (B. Vasiliev), “Hot snow” (Yu. Bondarev)

A stylistic device such as oxymoron. For example: I love lush nature withering(A. Pushkin); But beauty their ugly I soon comprehended the mystery (M. Lermontov); Look, she it's fun to be sad, such elegantly naked(A. Akhmatova).

Violation of stylistic compatibility can be used to create a comic effect: The forest owner loves to feast on polydrupes and angiosperms... And when the siverko blows, how the dashing bad weather makes fun - the general metabolism of the toptygin sharply slows down, the tone of the gastrointestinal tract decreases with a concomitant increase in the lipid layer. Yes, the minus range is not scary for Mikhailo Ivanovich: no matter how much hair there is, and the epidermis is notable (T. Tolstaya).

A description of the collocation possibilities of the most common words in the Russian language is given in a special dictionary: Dictionary of combinability of words in the Russian language / Ed. P.N. Denisova, V.V. Morkovkina. - M.: Rus. lang., 1983.

Training exercise

Find errors associated with violation of compatibility standards. Test yourself.

1. Some dressed up as a bear - wearing a fur coat turned inside out, others as a goat - pulling on a mask with horns and securing a broom.

2. He says this with the conviction of a man who has already had the opportunity to re-evaluate something in life.

3. Shortly before the end of the match, the Greek players evened out the result.

4. One saint will rise to his full height, and the second, Methodius, according to the author’s idea, kneeling, should hold a huge cross.

5. Voropaev looked at everything that was rushing towards the car with a feeling of great anxiety, as if he was now about to recognize a familiar creature in the rushing cavalcade of rocks, bushes and birds.

6. He, a Sukhumite, came to the Zhigulevsky plant after college and in six years became its inveterate patriot.

7. Many comments and valuable suggestions were made during the discussion of the issue.

8. Perhaps, while studying at the institute, Pivovarov showed any special merits?

9. Tractors and tractors saved wood located on the banks of the river.

10. Almost everyone in the class is an inveterate mathematician.

Vocabulary. Types of lexical items

The concept of lexical norms and typical lexical errors

Violation of accuracy, clarity, logic, brevity of speech as a consequence of lexical errors

1. Vocabulary. Types of lexical items

Vocabulary- the vocabulary of a language, which covers individual words and stable combinations of words. All words can be divided into several groups depending on their lexical features.

Depending on the number of lexical meanings, single-valued and polysemantic words are distinguished. Single word can have only one lexical meaning ( book, table, monologue, alert). Polysemous word has two or more meanings ( endure, green). In the explanatory dictionary, all meanings of a polysemantic word are given in one dictionary entry, each meaning is numbered and there may be a note before the interpretation of the word, for example, trans.(figurative meaning). Direct meaning is the basic meaning of a word. A figurative meaning is a secondary meaning that arose on the basis of a direct one.

Depending on the semantic connections between words, lexical units are divided into synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, and paronyms. Synonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound, identical or similar in meaning. Synonyms may differ from each other in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, or both. Antonyms- words with opposite meanings. Antonyms denote contrasting concepts that are correlated with each other. Antonyms can express opposite concepts of time (long ago - recently), place (top - bottom), space (north - south), etc. Homonyms- words that are identical in spelling and sound, related to one part of speech, but not related in meaning, for example: In dictionaries, homonyms, unlike polysemantic words, are given in different dictionary entries, since homonyms, unlike polysemantic words, are not have a common component of meaning. Paronyms words are called words that are similar in sound, but different in meaning, usually having the same root and belonging to the same part of speech, for example: spectacular - effective, addressee - addressee, tactical - tactful.

Lexical units are subdivided in terms of their sphere of use. Commonly used called vocabulary, understandable to all native speakers of the Russian language. Uncommon words are used only by one social group or another. These words are jargon(emotionally expressive words that are used by one or another social group and have a correspondence in the literary language), dialectisms(words that are used only by residents of a certain territory), argotisms ( words used in the speech of people of a certain social environment in order to hide the content of speech from representatives of other social groups), professionalism, terms.

Lexical units can be characteristic of only one style of speech, or they can be neutral, i.e. used in any style.

Depending on their origin, the words are native Russian and borrowed. Originally Russian Borrowings(foreign language vocabulary) - words that came into the Russian language from other languages ​​and are used according to the laws of the Russian language.

Depending on the frequency of use, passive and active vocabulary is distinguished. Vocabulary of everyday use is active (table, home, work, contract, tax, etc.). Passive vocabulary is rarely used. Passive vocabulary includes obsolete words that have fallen out of active use. They are divided into two groups: historicisms And archaisms. Historicisms – words denoting objects, phenomena that do not exist in modern life: corvée, quitrent, veche, arshin. Archaisms– words whose lexical meaning has changed. Archaisms have synonyms in modern Russian, because the objects and phenomena denoted by these words have not been lost. For example, forehead (forehead), fingers (fingers), shame (spectacle), shuitsa (left hand), right hand (right hand). In addition to obsolete words, passive vocabulary includes neologisms(new units of vocabulary). Neologisms can be individually-authored And general language. Individually authored neologisms belong to book speech, are created consciously, are not widely used, and are not recorded in dictionaries. Such neologisms are created in order to add expressiveness to speech. General linguistic neologisms arise when there is a need to name the desired object.

Lexical and phraseological norms of the modern Russian literary language

1. Lexical norms of the Russian language

2. Precision and expressiveness of the word. Errors associated with not knowing the exact meaning of a word.

3. Speech redundancy and speech failure

4. Words with a limited scope of use.

5. Stamps and stationery

6. Errors in the use of phraseological units

1. The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all changes in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also reflects emotions. Words name a wide variety of phenomena in the surrounding world. This ability of words to name objects, their signs, actions, etc. received the name of the nominative (nominal) function of the word. A word can perform a nominative function because it has a certain lexical meaning.

When choosing words, we pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, and compatibility with other words. Neglecting one of these criteria leads to speech errors.

The lexical meaning of a word names phenomena and objects of reality to which certain concepts correspond in our minds.

For example, pine is a coniferous tree with brown bark and long needles.

Orange – midway between yellow and red, the color of orange.

The accuracy of word usage consists in compliance with the lexical norms of the Russian literary language, in the ability to use words in speech (oral and written) in full accordance with their established and fixed lexical meanings in the language.

If the speaker or writer knows the lexical meaning of a word poorly or is completely unfamiliar, then inaccuracy in use or error may occur. An incorrectly chosen word can distort the meaning of the message, create the possibility of double interpretation, or impart an undesirable stylistic overtone.

Precision and expressiveness of the word. Errors associated with not knowing the exact meaning of a word.

Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it or without taking into account the meaning.

Accuracy as a quality of speech is always associated with the ability to think clearly, with knowledge of the subject of speech (conceptual and subject accuracy), with knowledge of the meaning of words. But first of all, the accuracy of speech is determined by the choice of words.

For example: For lovers of cold cocktails, mix the same companions, but in different proportions.

Companion– 1. Someone who keeps someone company. 2.Member of a trading or industrial company. The word component should have been used in this sentence.

Component– 1. An integral part of something.

Another example from the newspaper: We offer complete cure for alcoholics and other diseases.

If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced with the word alcoholism. These mistakes are associated not only with ignorance of the meaning of the word, but also with a careless attitude towards the language.

A common mistake is the use of function words without taking into account their meaning, for example, the prepositions thanks, because of, as a result.

Thanks toA fire that broke out from a fire burned a large area of ​​the forest.

Pretext thanks to retains semantic connection with the verb thank and is usually used only in cases where the reasons causing the desired result are spoken of: thanks to someone's help, support. In this example the preposition thanks to should be replaced by due to, as a result, owing to .

Use of paronyms.

Paronyms- (from the Greek para - next to and onyma - name) words with the same root, similar in sound and spelling, but differing in lexical meaning: ignoramus - ignorant, addressee - addressee, deed - offense, every - every, comic - comic.

Paronyms are not interchangeable in speech, as this leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. To avoid mistakes, you need to seek help from explanatory dictionaries or paronym dictionaries.

Compare two sentences: He leads a festive life. I'm in a lazy mood today.

They have very similar words - the same root, with a similar emphasis. But do they have the same meaning, do they stand in the same place?

Festive – adjective from holiday (dinner, mood).

Idle - not busy with business (idle life).

To restore the meaning of the statements, you need to swap these words. There are many such words in the Russian language, these are paronyms.

Paronyms are also the words dress And put on.

Dress - who, what. 1. To clothe someone. to some clothes. Dress a child, the sick, the wounded; Wed dress a doll, mannequin…

Put on- What. 1. Pull, pull (clothing, shoes, cover, etc.), covering, enveloping something. Wear a suit, skirt, coat, jacket, shoes, mask, headphones…

Verb dress comes into combination with animate nouns (and with a small number of inanimate ones, denoting the likeness of a person: doll, mannequin, skeleton); put on - with the inanimate.

The difference in the semantics of these words is emphasized by the fact that they form different antonymic pairs: put on - take off, put on - undress.

Lexical compatibility

When choosing a word, you should take into account not only its meaning, but also lexical compatibility. Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other. Not all words can be combined with each other:

A good leader must set an example for his subordinates.

You can show by example, not by example. You can be a role model.

Sophia is of great importance for understanding the image of Chatsky.

An error is a confusion of two expressions that are close in meaning: to play a role and to matter.

From the point of view of modern language, it is often difficult to explain the reasons for differences in the compatibility of words with similar meanings:

Pay attention/attribute importance to the development of sports.

Many combinations of words are fixed by linguistic tradition, and the ability to use them is part of a person’s linguistic culture.

Lexical compatibility has its limits. For example, the word strong has several meanings.

1. Something that is difficult to break or break (strong fabric, rope).

2. Strong in spirit, unshakable (strong in spirit old man).

3. Healthy, strong (body).

4. Reliable (strong friendship, love).

5. Reaching a strong degree (hard frost, wind).

6. Rich, potent, sharp (strong tea, tobacco).

7. Unwind Prosperous (strong owner).

Each meaning of a word has its own circle of compatibility. Thus, the fourth and fifth meanings of the word are combined with the words friendship, love, which are included in the semantic group “denotation of feelings”, as well as hatred, envy. But the words love and friendship are combined with the word strong, but the word hate is not (cannot be said strong hatred). That is, even the meanings of a polysemantic word have their own circle of compatibility. Words frost, wind- these are “weather and climatic conditions”, as well as heat, humidity. But you can say severe frost, wind, but you can’t say intense heat.

Should be distinguished from speech error intentional combination of incompatible words, for example: an ordinary miracle, a living corpse, terribly beautiful. This is one of the types of tropes - oxymoron.

Persitsky dragged the reluctant Lapis into the next room. The spectators followed them. There on the wall hung a large newspaper clipping, surrounded by a mourning border.
- Did you write this essay in “The Captain's Bridge”?
- I wrote.
- This seems to be your first experience in prose? Congratulations! “The waves rolled over the pier and fell down like a swift jack...” Well, you were a friend to the “Captain’s Bridge”! “The Bridge” won’t forget you for a long time now, Lapis!
- What's the matter?
- The thing is... Do you know what a jack is?
- Well, of course I know, leave me alone...
- How do you imagine a jack? Describe in your own words.
- So... Falling, in a word.

We cited this excerpt from “The Twelve Chairs” in order to show: it is not enough to know a lot of beautiful, expressive or clever words, you need to be able to use them correctly.

Lexical stylistics is a science that studies the lexical means of language and develops norms for their use.

We already briefly mentioned it in the third lesson, when we looked at functional styles. Selecting vocabulary when writing text is an extremely important and difficult task. It depends on your goals, audience and functional style. In the third lesson, we described what vocabulary is inherent in a particular style, and indicated that it is undesirable to mix different types of vocabulary in one text unless you want to achieve a special artistic effect in this way. In this lesson we will talk in more detail about the basic principles of lexical stylistics, which are useful for every author to know.

Meaning of the word and its connotations

The most important characteristic of a word is its meaning. The meanings of words, along with other types of signs, are studied by semantics. In semantics, there are several approaches to defining meaning. We will not describe in detail the differences between them, we will only say that meaning can be understood as a set of objects, processes, phenomena, a concept, generally accepted rules for using a word, etc. No matter how the meaning is defined, it is important that it is fixed in the language, and we ourselves cannot arbitrarily change it. Therefore, if you are not one hundred percent sure of the meaning of a word, never be lazy to look in the dictionary, otherwise you risk becoming the Lyapis Trubetskoy described above.

In addition to the direct meaning, which is sometimes designated by the term denotation, each word also has additional meanings, or connotations. They are designed to convey the attitude of the speaker or writer to the subject of speech. Therefore, when choosing vocabulary, they also need to be taken into account. They will help you effectively explain your point or your attitude. At the same time, if you haven’t thought about the connotations, then the reader may have them and will form associations that are not the ones you wanted. To illustrate how connotations work, here are the following synonyms: respect, devotion, servility. Respect- a neutral term meaning a feeling of respect resulting from recognition of someone's merits, merits and achievements. Term devotion clearly carries positive connotations: a person devoted to someone not only respects him, but also will not leave him in difficult times. Servility but it has negative connotations: it is stupid, ostentatious respect, which has selfish goals behind it and manifests itself in flattery, servility, and servility.

Speech errors

Using a word without taking into account its meaning and connotations leads to speech errors. “The waves fell down like a swift jack” is a vivid example of a speech error. Lyapis Trubetskoy did not know the exact meaning of the word jack, and therefore inserted it into a completely inappropriate context. It is clear that this example is an exaggeration: most often people confuse words that sound similar ( addressee and addressee, incident and precedent) or value ( development and improvement, accompany and favor). Let us repeat once again that the main way to eliminate such errors is to check the meanings of words in the dictionary. This is also useful because dictionary entries most often contain common examples of the correct use of a word.

In addition to errors that directly stem from ignorance of the meaning of a word, there are the following types of speech errors: euphemism, anachronism, alogism, substitution of a concept, unjustified expansion or narrowing of a concept. Let's look at them in more detail.

Euphemism is a word or expression used to replace other words that are considered obscene or inappropriate. For example, instead of saying about a woman that she is pregnant or expecting a child, they say that she is in an interesting position. By and large, euphemism is not a mistake, but its inappropriate and excessive use creates the effect of bad style.

Anachronism- violation of chronology when using words related to any era. For example, “Medieval peasants, dissatisfied with the conditions of their existence, organized rallies.” Word rally appeared much later, and its use in relation to medieval peasants is inappropriate.

Alogism is a comparison of incomparable concepts. For example, “The lexicon of literary texts is richer compared to other texts.” In this case, it turns out that the lexicon is compared with texts, although it can only be compared with another lexicon. Correct option: “The lexicon of literary texts is richer compared to the lexicon of other texts.”

Substitution of the concept- an error caused by replacing one concept with another: “The bookshelves were filled with boring titles.” It is clear that the titles cannot stand on the shelves; books were on them. It would be correct to say: “The bookshelves were filled with books with boring titles.”

Unjustified expansion or narrowing of a concept- This is an error that arises as a result of mixing generic categories. It has two varieties: the use of a generic concept instead of a specific one (“Twice a day we walk with our pet,” it’s correct to say with our dog) and, conversely, the use of a specific concept instead of a generic one (“School is important for the socialization of girls,” it must be said children, because boys also need socialization).

Lexical compatibility

Lexical compatibility- This is the ability of words to combine with each other. Understanding whether words go together or not is no less important than knowing their meaning. Words may not be combined for several reasons. Firstly, they may be incompatible in meaning: black sun, cold fire, slowly taking your time. Secondly, restrictions can be imposed by grammar: I go to breathe, my good. Finally, the combination of words is influenced by their lexical features: we can say best friends, but not best enemies.

Violation of lexical compatibility also leads to speech errors. Most often, errors occur for three reasons:

1. Confusion in the use of synonyms. Not always synonyms can be included in the same phrases. Let's take, for example, synonyms long, long, long-lasting. We can tell a long day And long day, but not long day.
2. Incorrect use of ambiguous words. Often polysemantic words in one of their meanings are easily included in various word combinations, while in another meaning they can be combined only with a few words. For example, the word deep meaning “having great depth” easily combines with all words that fit the meaning: deep well, deep lake, deep river etc. However, in the meaning of “reached the limit, complete, perfect,” this word already has limited compatibility: one can say late at night, but not in the late afternoon, in deep old age, but not in deep childhood.
3. Contamination, or mixing of seemingly similar phrases. Common examples of contamination are mixing of phrases play a role And matter, satisfy the requirements of And meet needs etc.

To avoid such mistakes, you must use the Russian Word Compatibility Dictionary.

Lexical deficiency and lexical redundancy

Lexical deficiency- this is the omission of words necessary to accurately express a thought. It is most typical for spoken language, but is also found in written texts. The result of lexical insufficiency is a comic effect or loss of meaning. To illustrate, at a dog show: “Dear participants, wipe your faces and get ready for the parade!” Obviously, the participants should not wipe their own muzzles, but the dogs' muzzles.

Lexical redundancy- unjustified verbosity. It is an indispensable attribute of bad style. There are several types of lexical redundancy:

1. Idle talk, or pouring from empty to empty: “Walking in the fresh air is very useful. Everyone should go for a walk: children, adults, old people. This is a healthy habit that should be instilled from childhood. Do you need to go for a walk every day? Of course it is necessary." Such reasoning does not provide any informational value.
2. Lyapalissiada- a statement of obvious truth: “Ten minutes before it was ready, the soup was not yet ready.”
3. Pleonasm- the use of words that are close in meaning in one phrase: main point, illogical paradox, foresee in advance. Often pleonasms arise from combining synonyms: “With this example he showed and illustrated his thought.”
4. Tautology- this is a type of pleonasm that occurs when repeating words with the same root, in other words - butter. Vivid examples of tautologies: tell a story, ask a question. Also tautological is the combination of a Russian word and a word of foreign origin that duplicates its meaning: interior interior, souvenirs, leading leader.

To avoid such mistakes, you just need to be careful. Always reread your text several times. Sometimes it is better to do this a few hours after finishing work on the text. This will help create the necessary distance: you will look at your text through the eyes of your reader.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on completion. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are mixed.

Introduction

There are many words in the Russian language that seem to “attract” to each other. For example, they say: “a herd of cows”, “a herd of horses”, “a flock of sheep”. That’s why the unfortunate combination of words makes me laugh: “A flock of ducks and hares appeared in the distance.” In this case, the words are connected incorrectly, i.e. lexical compatibility is impaired.

Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other. After all, in speech words are used not one at a time, not in isolation, but in phrases. At the same time, some words are freely combined with others if they suit their meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility. Thus, very similar definitions - long, long, long, long - are attracted to nouns in different ways: you can say a long (long) period, but not a long (long) period.

Limitations of lexical compatibility for certain words are often explained by their use in special meanings. For example, the word round in its basic meaning - “one that resembles the shape of a circle, ring, ball” - is freely combined with words of the corresponding subject-thematic group: round table, round box; round window. But, speaking in the meaning of “whole, whole, without interruption” (about time), the word round is combined only with the nouns year, day, and in the meaning of “complete, perfect” - with such as an excellent student, an ignoramus.

In other cases, the reason for limiting lexical compatibility is the assignment of words to set expressions. For example, the velvet season is “the autumn months (September, October) in the south.” This expression has a stable character and the word “season” cannot be replaced by any other word, even the closest in meaning, for example, “velvet autumn.”

Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the combination of similar phrases. For example, they write: “meet modern requirements,” mixing the combinations “meet requirements” and “meet needs”; “conversation read” (“lecture given” and “conversation held”); “improve the level” (“improve quality” and “raise the level”).

lexical compatibility error

1. Violation of lexical compatibility

Semantic errors

Violation of lexical compatibility is caused by semantic errors of two types - logical and linguistic.

Logical errors are associated with failure to distinguish between concepts that are close in some respect. Often people do not distinguish between areas of activity, cause and effect, part and whole, and related phenomena.

Thus, in the sentence “Residents of a seaside town witnessed a large theatrical performance,” an error is found in the phrase “witnesses of the performance.” The word “witness” means “eyewitness” - this is the name given to a person who was at the scene of an incident. This word is associated with the field of judicial and legal activity. In the field of theatrical and concert activity, which is discussed in the sentence, the word “spectator” is used. This error is associated with not distinguishing between areas of activity.

The erroneous combination “prices have become more expensive” is due to the failure to distinguish between the related concepts of “prices” and “products”: goods become more expensive, and prices rise. You can give examples of similar errors in sentences: “The timely launch of the plant raises concerns”; “There are 52 trees in the park”; “As a result of the plague epidemic, people left the city.” All these errors are not explained by distinguishing related phenomena: they fear not that the plant will be launched, but that it will not be launched on time; they are not laying trees, but a park; people leave the city not as a result, but because of the plague. Possible corrections in these cases: “There is concern that the plant will not be launched on time”; “52 trees were planted in the park”; “As a result of the plague, the city was deserted.”

Linguistic errors are associated with the failure to distinguish between denoting words that are in any semantic relationship. These are mainly synonyms and paronyms.

Failure to distinguish between synonyms, words that are close or have the same meaning, leads to errors in use. For example, the words “role” and “function” in the meaning of “work, circle of activity” are synonymous, but genetically they are associated with different signifiers: role - with the sphere of theater and cinema, and function - with logic. Hence the established lexical compatibility: the role is played (played), and the function is performed (performed). The words “brave” and “brave” are synonyms, but “brave” is associated with the external manifestation of the called quality, and “brave” is associated with both external and internal, therefore a thought, decision, idea can only be courageous, but not brave.

Not distinguishing between paronyms, i.e. words that partially match in sound also lead to errors in use; Most paronyms are words with the same root, differing in suffixes or prefixes and, as a consequence, shades of meaning, as well as stylistic coloring. For example, a misdemeanor (fault) is an act (an action committed by someone); guilty (who has committed a crime) - guilty (who has been guilty of something, who has violated the rules of morality, politeness, etc.); pay (for something) – pay (for something).

Paronyms can be associated with different variants of a common root. For example, short (small in size, the opposite of long) – brief (stated briefly, in a few words). Therefore, they speak a short text, but a brief retelling of the text.

Borrowed words may also appear in paronymic relationships: parity (equality) - priority (superiority, advantage), dequalification (loss of qualifications) - disqualification (deprivation of qualifications), etc. To distinguish paronyms of foreign origin, it is necessary to refer to dictionaries of foreign words.

Below are frequency pairs of paronyms:

Execute – execute have a general meaning of “to carry out, to bring to life”, for example, to fulfill (fulfill) an order, but the second verb has a bookish character;

Long - long-lasting coincide in the meaning of “continuing, lengthy”, for example, a long (long) conversation, a long (long) pause, but “long” indicates an extension in time, and “long” emphasizes the procedural meaning of the noun; “long” is usually combined with the names of periods of time (long night, long winter), and “long” – with the names of actions and conditions designed for a long period (long flight, long treatment);

Agreement - agreement differ in that “agreement” means a written or oral agreement, a condition of mutual obligations (agreement of friendship and cooperation), and “agreement” means an agreement reached through negotiations (an agreement to include an issue on the agenda);

Truth (truth, the actual state of affairs) - truth (correspondence to truth). For example, the desire for truth is the truth of the assumptions made;

Ordinary - ordinary differ in that the first word emphasizes inconspicuousness, unremarkability, and the second - typicality. For example, an ordinary person – an ordinary day.

To identify the specifics of words connected by paronymic relationships, it is necessary to correctly understand the morphological composition of the word and the method of its formation. For example, in the pairs assimilate - master, complicate - complicate, make heavier - make heavier words with the prefix o- have the meaning of a higher degree of manifestation of the action. In the pairs hygienic - hygienic, logical - logical, practical - practical, economic - economical, distinguished by the suffixes -ichesk-/-n-, the second adjective denotes a characteristic that can be manifested to a greater or lesser extent (qualitative adjective). This implies compatibility: hygienic norm - hygienic fabric, logical laws - logical conclusion, practical application - practical clothing, economic policy - economical device.

Stylistic errors

Stylistic errors are a violation of the requirements of the unity of a functional style, the unjustified use of emotionally charged, stylistically marked means. Stylistic errors are associated with ignoring the restrictions that its stylistic coloring imposes on the use of a word.

The most common stylistic mistakes include:

1. The use of clericalisms - words and phrases characteristic of an official business style. For example, “As the income portion of my budget increased, I decided to purchase a new car for permanent use” - “I began to receive a lot of money, so I decided to buy a new car.”

2. The use of words (expressions) of inappropriate stylistic coloring. Thus, in a literary context, the use of slang, colloquial, and abusive language is inappropriate; in a business text, colloquial and expressive words should be avoided. For example, “The trustee of charitable institutions is cozying up to the auditor” - “The trustee of charitable institutions is currying favor with the auditor.”

3. Mixing styles is the unjustified use in one text of words and syntactic structures characteristic of different styles of the Russian language. For example, a mixture of scientific and conversational styles.

4. Mixing vocabulary from different historical eras. For example, “The heroes wear chain mail, trousers, mittens” - “The heroes wear chain mail, armor, mittens.”

5. Incorrect sentence construction. For example, “Despite his youth, he is a good person.” There are several ways to fix these errors. First, change the order of words in the sentence: “There are many works that tell about the author’s childhood in world literature” - “In world literature there are many works that tell about the author’s childhood.”

6. Secondly, remake the sentence: “Of other sporting events, let’s talk about the barbell” - “Of other sporting events, we should highlight the barbell competition.”

7. Pleonasm – speech excess, the use of words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view. In order to avoid pleonasm, you must do the following:

Replace the word with the same root, for example, monumental monument - monument;

Remove a word from a phrase, for example, the main essence is the essence, valuable treasures are treasures;

Remove a word from the text without reducing quality. For example, “Operation is the way in which an action is performed” - “Operation is the way in which an action is performed”; “Building a model in accordance with known rules” – “Building a model according to the rules.”

8. Tautology – the use of words with the same root within the boundaries of one sentence. For example, “Tell a story”; "Ask a question." Ways to correct tautologies are:

Replace one of the words with a synonym. For example, “The heavy rain did not stop all day” - “The heavy rain did not stop all day”;

Remove one of the words. For example, “Along with these signs, there are a number of others” - “Along with these signs, there are others.”

Tautology is easily detected when reading the text aloud. Overused words usually include which, so, and can.

9. Lexical repetitions in the text. For example, “In order to study well, students must pay more attention to their studies.” Words that are repeated must be replaced with synonyms, nouns can be replaced with pronouns, or the repeated word can be removed altogether if possible - “To achieve success, students must pay more attention to classes.”

10. Substitution of the concept. This error occurs as a result of missing a word. For example, “Patients who have not visited the outpatient clinic for three years are placed in the archive” (we are talking about patient cards, and from the text of the sentence it follows that the patients themselves were taken to the outpatient clinic).

11. This error, which arose as a result of the author’s stylistic negligence, can be easily corrected: it is necessary to insert an accidentally missed word or phrase. For example, “Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm” - “Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm.”

12. Choice of singular or plural forms. Often there are problems with the use of singular or plural. Examples of correct use are combinations: two or more options, three or more forms, there are several options, there are some options.

For correct use, agreement in meaning is increasingly used: if a single whole is meant, then the singular is used, and if it is necessary to emphasize individual objects, the plural is used.

13. Agreement of words in a sentence. Errors in word agreement in sentences often occur, especially when it comes to controlling verbs. For example, “This section describes opening, working and saving a document” - “This section describes the procedures for opening and saving documents, as well as working with them.”

14. Creation of verbal nouns. You should be careful when creating verbal nouns, because... many of the words created are not in the dictionary, and their use is considered illiterate (arrange - ordering, not ordering; collapse - folding, not collapsing).

15. Stringing identical shapes. You should avoid stringing together identical case forms, for example with the words “so that” and “which”. For example, “In order to avoid the possibility of danger” - “To avoid the occurrence of danger.”

16. Poverty and monotony of syntactic structures. For example, “The man was dressed in a burnt padded jacket. The padded jacket was roughly mended. The boots were almost new. Socks are moth-eaten” – “The man was dressed in a roughly darned, burnt-out padded jacket. Although the boots were almost new, the socks turned out to be moth-eaten.”

Stylistically unjustified use of tropes. The use of tropes can cause a variety of speech errors. Poor imagery of speech is a fairly common flaw in the style of authors who are poor at writing.

For example, “The judge was just as simple and modest.

2. Errors in the use of borrowed words

In recent years, the Russian language has been intensively replenished with borrowed words. This is because the country has entered into a new socio-political formation, as well as free market relations. Language always responds quickly and flexibly to the needs of society. It is no exaggeration to say that a linguistic explosion has occurred. However, there is nothing wrong with this, because borrowed words are the result of contacts and relationships between peoples and states.

The presence in one language of words from other languages ​​and their use in speech is an objective reality. The number of such words is constantly increasing due to the penetration of new words and the expansion of the scope of old ones, which were used in a narrow meaning.

Unfortunately, when using borrowed words, many errors are made (spelling, orthoepic, grammatical, lexical), which are explained by the special position of foreign words: in a new language they have weak family ties (or do not have them at all), so their root for most native speakers are vague, the meaning is unclear, but their modernity is felt in comparison with familiar Russian or long-acquired borrowed words.

The most common type of error is associated with the unreasonable use of a foreign word, which does not introduce anything new in comparison with its Russian or long-acquired borrowed synonym. For example, “The perfume launch took place last Friday; The perfume sold well." If the word “perfume” has the meaning of a special type of perfume or denotes some class of perfumery products, which includes the perfume in question, it is necessary to give a comment; if the word “perfume” is used in its direct meaning “perfume”, then the need for its use in this text is very doubtful.

Another type of error is the stringing of borrowed words, which can “stun” the reader with the scientific nature of the presentation. For example, “There must be a selection of property profitability.” The difficulty of understanding is associated with the use of two borrowed words in a row, and each of them is used incorrectly. The word “selection” means “a branch of agronomy and animal science that deals with the development of new varieties and breeds (by selection method).” The word “profitability” means “the property of being profitable (profitable, profitable).” Apparently, the word “selection” is used here, in its direct translation from English as “selection”, but such a meaning has not yet been formed in the Russian language, in addition, it is not combined with the word meaning “property”, so such use is perceived like a logical fallacy. It should be written: “The most cost-effective (profitable) types of property should be selected.”

Very often, ignorance of the exact meaning of a borrowed word leads to mistakes. For example, “Crime and Punishment” is a cult novel by Dostoevsky.” The word “cult” has two meanings:

1. adjective to the word “cult” in the meaning of “service to a deity and related actions and rituals” (cult objects);

2. widely known and popular; arousing the worship of its adherents (cult film).

It is obvious that in the above phrase the word “cult” is used in the meaning of the word “popular”, which is incorrect. It should be written: “Crime and Punishment” is a popular novel.”

Most pleonastic combinations arise precisely when borrowed words are used. For example: “short briefing” (“short” is included in the meaning of the word “briefing”, therefore it is superfluous), “terrain” (the word “terrain” is superfluous), “main priority” (the word “main” is superfluous).

A borrowed word that has a Russian synonym is usually higher in style (somewhat more formal), so it is poorly suited for interpersonal confidential communication, for describing a person’s inner world, his feelings, moods. Foreign words are more suitable for information about political events, scientific phenomena, and for communication between organizations and states. For example, an alliance is an alliance: an alliance of liberals and democrats, an alliance of the government of Moscow and the Moscow region, but a union of hearts, an alliance of friends. Thus, borrowed words have a stylistically more limited use than their Russian synonyms. Ignoring this feature of borrowed words leads to stylistic errors. For example, “Literature itself as a total value is under threat,” where instead of the word “total” the words “universal” or “eternal” should be used.

Among borrowings there is a special group of words denoting concepts characteristic of a very specific country (a number of countries) or people. Such borrowings are called exoticisms. For example, prairies are flat steppe spaces in North America, and savannas are plains in South America and Africa, covered with herbaceous vegetation, among which groups of trees and shrubs are scattered. Exoticisms are quite appropriate in texts that describe the reality with which these words are correlated (here it is necessary to ensure that prairies do not end up in South America, and savannas in North America).

The Russian text also contains foreign language inclusions and barbarisms. Foreign language inclusions are words, phrases, sentences in a foreign language of one-time use. Acquiring a regular character and taking shape in Cyrillic, they become barbarisms, for example: happy end, weekend, shop (from shop). For many foreign words, barbarism is the first stage of entry into the language (show, marketing). But a word or expression can become entrenched in a language precisely as barbarism, while having a Russian synonym, for example: nihil - nothing, tête-à-tête - alone. It is necessary to distinguish between the use of barbarisms to describe non-Russian reality, when they act as a characterological means, similar in function to exoticism, and to describe Russian reality. The first ones, if they are not widely known, are accompanied by explanations. When describing Russian reality, barbarisms are used exclusively as an expressive means (Vivat, Russia!) and are unacceptable in strictly informative texts.

I would also like to note that the incorrect use of borrowed words leads to the following errors:

1. Violation of spelling norms.

This section includes errors in the pronunciation of borrowings, as well as incorrect stress placement in foreign words. For example, “expert” instead of “expert”, “kv”artal instead of “kvart”al, kat”alog instead of katal”og, “kil”meters instead of “kil”meters.

2. Violation of spelling norms. For example, the word “billiard” instead of “billiards”.

3. Violation of grammatical norms. For example, “two shampoos”, “two shoes” are the wrong gender.

4. Violation of word compatibility norms. For example, “Only here there were interesting nuances.”

Conclusion

Analyzing the above, we can highlight a number of features of the violation of lexical compatibility, namely:

1. Errors are distinguished by their predominant nature in relation to grammatical and stylistic norms themselves. The leading types of violations in the field of vocabulary are the use of words in an unusual meaning, failure to distinguish the meanings of synonyms and paronyms;

2. Characterized by “genre stability”;

3. They have “quality stability”. This is incorrect word usage and compatibility.

4. Words of certain parts of speech are more susceptible to misuse (primarily verbs that have specific features of lexical meaning, as a rule, the presence of a differential feature that specifies compatibility), words that are in certain systemic connections (a significant number of synonyms, a branched semantic structure and so on.).

The combination of words plays a particularly important role in artistic speech. The expansion of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, underlies many classic images of great masters of artistic speech: “gray winter threat” (A.S. Pushkin), “pot-bellied nut bureau” (N.V. Gogol), “rubber thought" (I. Ilf and E. Petrov). Violation of lexical compatibility is also used by modern writers as a striking stylistic device. For example, “They lost hope of crushing his regiment” (K. Simonov). Many such combinations become fixed in the language and become stable, which indicates their approval by the linguistic taste of the time.

Humorists often resort to violation of lexical compatibility in order to give a comic tone to their speech. For example, “The population of the circulation ark fell asleep”; “apple with a mole” (I. Ilf and E. Petrov). This stylistic device underlies various jokes: “A genius was recognized alive; “He was appointed director of his own free will.”

In search of unexpected images and vivid speech expression, poets especially often expand their lexical compatibility. Suffice it to recall the classic lines of M.Yu. Lermontov: “Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness”; A.A. Feta: “September has died. And the dahlias were scorched by the breath of the night”; B. Pasternak: “February. Get some ink and cry! Write about February sobbingly.” Contemporary poets also appreciate this stylistic device: “The small forest asked for alms of snow from the greedy or poor heavens” (B. Akhmadulina).

However, in colloquial speech, a violation of lexical compatibility can become an annoying speech error. For example, “The basin made a cozy impression on us.” After all, the “impression” can be pleasant, and the “corner” can be cozy.

When using words that have extremely limited possibilities for lexical connections, a violation of compatibility often becomes the reason for the comic sound of speech: “The students worked at their experimental site as the most notorious specialists”; “Guys came to the youth circle, dejected by their experience.” Lexical errors in such cases damage not only the style, but also the content of the phrase, because the associations that arise suggest the opposite meaning.

In conclusion, we can say that careful attention to the word, to the peculiarities of lexical combinability in the Russian language will help to avoid such mistakes in speech, and in other cases, it will allow the use of unusual combinations of words to create vivid images or as a source of humor.

Bibliography

1. Bragina A.A. Neologisms in the Russian language. M. - 1995.

2. Fomenko Yu.V. Types of speech errors. Novosibirsk - 1994.

3. Tseytlin S.N. Speech errors and their prevention. M. - 1982.