Visual psychodiagnostics of personality. Visual psychodiagnostics

Methods of visual diagnostics are an important source of information about the state of the internal organs of an animal; often, without their use, the final diagnosis is not possible.

Making a diagnosis in veterinary medicine is not an easy and very laborious process. At the first signs of pet discomfort, attentive owners immediately turn to veterinary specialists.

At the reception, the doctor asks the owners in detail about the signs of the disease, conducts a full examination of the patient and takes blood, urine and feces tests. All these studies provide very valuable information about the patient's condition, on the basis of which the veterinarian makes a preliminary diagnosis. To clarify the diagnosis, additional methods of visual diagnostics play an important role:

Ultrasound diagnostics,

ECHO-kg (echocardiogram),

ECG (electrocardiography),

X-ray diagnostics,

CT diagnostics and MRI diagnostics,

Endoscopic diagnostic methods.

Ultrasound diagnostics

Ultrasound diagnostics is used to assess the state of internal organs and tissues, identify pathological changes in them, and impaired blood circulation. Using this method, all internal organs of the animal, their structure, size, anatomy, can be examined.

Ultrasound of the heart, joints, eye structures, blood vessels and tendons is also performed. The advantage of this methodology is its technical simplicity and safety for animal health; this method can be applied even to weakened and pregnant animals.

With the help of ultrasound, we can examine all organs of the abdominal and pelvic cavities (stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, kidneys, ovaries, uterus, prostate and bladder). This is very useful in the differential diagnosis of abdominal diseases.

Separately, it is worth mentioning the use of ultrasound for the diagnosis of pregnancy in dogs and cats. Given the low invasiveness and high diagnostic reliability of this research method, it can be repeatedly used both for detecting pregnancy and for its management.

ECHO-kg

Echocardiography is one of the types of ultrasound examination in which the structure of the heart muscle and the valve apparatus is examined. With the help of this study, a veterinarian-cardiologist can detect the presence of defects in the heart muscle (HCM - hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, DCM - dilated myopathy), valve apparatus (insufficiency of the mitral valve, aortic valves, pulmonary artery and stricture of atrioventricular openings).

This study is a mandatory component of a complete cardiac examination; in cats, ECHO-kg is used for screening before surgery.

ECG

ECG (electrocardiography) is a diagnostic study aimed at assessing the electrical activity of the heart muscle. It is used in the diagnosis of cardiac pathologies in dogs and cats. It is the conduct of electrocardiography that allows detecting the presence of violations in the conduction system of this unique organ. The heart consists of striated muscles, its work is based, like any muscle tissue, on electrical impulses, but unlike other muscle organs regulated by the central nervous system, the heart muscle has independent electrical activity.

Many diseases of the heart in dogs and cats can be caused by disturbances in electrical activity or by their cause. ECG is the most informative method for detecting electrical heart problems. Without conducting this study, a comprehensive examination of heart function and the appointment of the correct treatment is not possible.

X-ray diagnostics

X-ray examination is a universal diagnostic tool in veterinary therapy and surgery. Thanks to X-ray, it is possible to identify violations of the bone structures of both the limbs and the skull with the spine. In addition, X-rays are used to diagnose cardiac pathologies, diseases of the lungs, trachea, and internal organs.

Of particular importance in veterinary diagnostics are X-ray examinations with a contrast medium (foreign bodies in the gastrointestinal tract, contrast urography, contrast myelography, etc.).

Computed tomography (CT), MRI diagnostics

Non-invasive methods for diagnosing diseases of the musculoskeletal system and internal organs, allowing for a thin layer-by-layer diagnosis of internal organs. In contrast to X-ray examination, CT and MRI require mandatory sedation (introduction into drug sleep) of the animal, which significantly reduces the frequency of these methods, but does not reduce their diagnostic value, often this is the only way to diagnose brain pathologies.

Endoscopic diagnostic methods

Endoscopy is often used for both diagnosis and treatment. The essence of endoscopic technology is the introduction of endoscopic equipment into the natural internal cavities of the body for diagnosis and / or treatment. This allows you to gain access to very hard-to-reach areas of the body of dogs and cats without extensive surgical interventions.

The stomach is accessed through the oral cavity and esophagus, the bronchi and trachea can be viewed when the endoscope is inserted through the oropharynx, the bladder is accessible when the endoscope is inserted through the urethra. Separately, the technique of laparoscopy is used - an invasive method of revision of the abdominal organs without causing extensive surgical wounds.

In the city veterinary clinic "VetState" we are pleased to offer you a full range of ultrasound diagnostics:

Ultrasound of the abdominal cavity of dogs and cats,

Ultrasound of the kidneys,

Ultrasound of the liver,

Bowel ultrasound,

Ultrasound of the prostate,

Ultrasound of the uterus and ovaries

ECHO hearts,

As well as ECG, blood pressure measurement in dogs and cats. Reception is by appointment.

Visual psychodiagnostics is a branch of psychodiagnostics based on the study of the external characteristics and appearance of a person in order to penetrate into the internal psychological content of the personality. There is a relationship between external and internal, and the psychological characteristics of a person can be determined by analyzing the physical body of a person and its external manifestations.

The existence of a relationship between the body and soul of a person has been known for a long time. Hermes Trismegistus wrote about this 5000 years ago: "What is inside, so outside, what outside, so also inside." Since ancient times, people have tried to draw a conclusion about the inner state of a person on the basis of visible external signs. According to Heraclitus, a person's morality is his fate, with which he is born, and the manifestation of disposition is expressed not only in words and deeds, but also in appearance. In ancient times, much attention was paid to the study of temperaments.

Scientists tried to find the external manifestations of personality traits and temperament, looked for the relationship between morphological and psychological characteristics of representatives of a particular temperament. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC) is considered the creator of the doctrine of temperaments. In his treatise "On the nature of man" he pointed out that temperament is associated with the predominance of one of the "life juices" in the body:

• - blood (sanguine temperament),
• - red-yellow bile (choleric),
• - phlegm or phlegm (phlegmatic) and
• - black bile (melancholic temperament).

Differences in the types of body structure have been noticed since ancient times. Over time, various psychological characteristics began to be attributed to a certain type of physique. So many typologies were created based on the characteristics of a person's physique. Eugene Ledo's typology is based on the assertion that the structure of the human body corresponds to five geometric shapes: a quadrangle, a circle, an oval, a triangle and a cone. Each type is characterized by its own hidden abilities, instincts and passions, which are activated or remain inactive depending on the development of the personality, its life path. Disagreement between type and temperament leads to internal conflicts, contradictions in feelings, desires, actions, oddities of character.

Methods of psychological diagnostics are traditionally used to recognize and measure individual psychological characteristics of a person (mental processes, personality traits, intellectual abilities) . Psychodiagnostic tasks are solved both with the help of tests and with the help of non-test methods for determining the individual psychological characteristics of a person, which include methods of visual psychodiagnostics.

The main methods of visual psychodiagnostics are observation, conversation, biographical method, morphological and graphological analysis, physiognomy, chiromancy, etc. Such human features as physique, facial features, shape of hands, fingers, nails, facial expressions, gestures are analyzed. Externally observable preferences of a person are also considered, such as the color of clothing and interior design, appearance, decorations used, pets, a personal car, etc. Various methods of visual diagnostics are used: Luscher's color test, V.P. Kulikov, the method of Sondi, etc.

In modern psychology, consideration of the problem of the relationship between the external and the internal is carried out simultaneously from different sides. Most of the work of scientists is devoted to the phenomenon of social perception. O.G. Kukosyan identifies three areas of research in this area:

• - the formation of the first impression of a person;
• - the perception of his appearance and behavior;
• - the formation of the concept of another person as a person.

In the course of research on social perception, factors affecting the process of human perception by a person and the formation of the concept of another person as a person are considered, typical mistakes that a person makes when evaluating the people around him are revealed. The features of the perception of physical appearance are considered in detail in the studies of A.A. Bodaleva, G.G. Guseva, A.M. Kolesova, V.N. Panferova, E.E. Smirnova, A.M. Zinina, I.F. Vinichenko, V.F. Shendrick and others. In physical appearance, scientists especially distinguish the face and some of its elements.

The problem of the first impression of another person in Russian psychology was studied by such scientists as A.A. Bodalev, A.A. Leontiev, V.N. Kunitsyna, V.N. Panferov, G.M. Biryukova, I.A. Urklin, G.V. Dyakonov and others. The characteristics of the first impression of another person were traced depending on a wide range of factors such as gender, age, education, occupation and marital status of adults. Similar studies in foreign psychology were carried out by S. Ash, G. Kelly, D. Bruner, R. Tagiuri, G. Allport, T. Newcomb and others.

In recent years, much attention has been paid to research on non-verbal communication, since it became clear that this component of human social behavior plays a more important role in the life of society than previously thought.

Such scientists as V. Reich, D. Efron, R. Birdwistell, G. Allport, E. Hall, P. Ekman and others were engaged in issues of non-verbal behavior.

Among domestic researchers of non-verbal behavior, the names of G.M. Andreeva, L.I. Antsyferova, A.G. Asmolova, E.A. Ermolaeva, V.N. Kunitsyna, V.A. Labunskaya, A.A. Leontiev, B.D. Parygina, V.N. Panferova, E.V. Rudensky, V.P. Trusov and many other scientists.

Researchers have found that performance, mobility, or rigidity of behavior largely depend on the type of addition. N.N. Obozov also proposed a three-component typology of behavior , according to which, such types of behavior as a thinker, interlocutor, practitioner are distinguished. Each of the types is characterized by peculiar external manifestations (features of walking, posture, gestures, facial expressions), as well as certain preferences in choosing the sphere of professional activity.

A.G. Safronov, along with an analysis of the constitutional type, also proposes to consider type of human energy distribution . It proceeds from the fact that a person is an energetic being, and his physical structure is a reflection of his energetic alignment. According to the method of energy distribution, he distinguishes such pronounced types as schizoid, hysterical, rigid, "collapsed", oral. These are pure types, however, in a real type these pure types are mixed in certain proportions.

Thus, modern visual diagnostics includes various scientific directions and methods. Techniques of psychological observation are being developed that take into account the psychological patterns of people's perception and understanding of each other and are used to study and evaluate the characteristics of people. Information about the individual psychological characteristics of a person can be obtained on the basis of various external signs.

According to I.M. Sechenov, the outlines of the face and the general silhouette of the body are the most important identifying signs of a person for the people who perceive him. As some modern studies show, the role of supporting signs for most people is played by height, eyes (color), hair (color), facial expressions, nose, and body features. According to other sources, eyes, lips, hands, legs (feet) are among the most informative parts of the body.

At the same time, most people in appearance more quickly notice features that are a deviation from the samples taken by these people as the norm (characteristic features). These are the so-called special signs.

In the literature on social perception, it is customary to distinguish

• - static features;
• - anatomical signs that make up the physical appearance of a person;
• - dynamic features;
• - functional features that characterize expressive behavior;
• - medium-resistant signs (complementary, clarifying).

The reflection of the appearance as a whole or of its individual elements from an aesthetic point of view causes not always a conscious attitude (positive or negative) in the perceiver towards the communication partner. And if appearance itself acts as an objective source of information about another person, then the attitude to appearance plays the role of a subjective background against which the process of cognition takes place. The resulting attitude determines the general direction of the socio-psychological interpretation of the personality. The level of logical knowledge of a person by a person is expressed in judgments about each other, the content of which is the determination of abilities, character, temperament, needs, social status, type of activity and behavior.

In the course of a person's perception by a person, the perceived is attributed to a certain set of personal characteristics based on the particular details of his appearance and behavior noticed by the perceiver. Certain patterns of human perception by man. Studies show that the formation of the image of another person, the nature of the psychological interpretation of his appearance depends on such characteristics of the perceiving person as:

• - age, gender, professional and social background;
• - individual life experience;
• - individual psychological characteristics (needs, interests, life goals, motives, self-esteem, self-confidence);
• - a system of concepts formed in a person (the experience of knowing people in general);
• - the nature of the relationship between the perceiver and the perceived.

All information coming from the surrounding world is interpreted depending on the characteristics of the perceiving person. Therefore, the objectively perceived features of the physical appearance of another person can significantly change and even distort. There are effects that distort the perception of a person by a person:

• - primacy effect (the opinion formed at the beginning very often determines the attitude towards a person or event for a long time);
• - the halo effect (means the influence of the general impression of a person on the perception and assessment of the particular properties of his personality: if the general impression is favorable, then the positive qualities of the person are overestimated, and the negative ones are either obscured or somehow justified);
• - the effect of consistency (consists in the fact that the information presented in the first place has the greatest influence on the judgment of a stranger, and if it concerns a familiar person, then the latest information about him);
• - the projection effect (an unconscious tendency to transfer undesirable qualities and properties to another person);
• - the effect of condescension (excessive uncriticality when evaluating another person);
• - effect of preliminary information (preliminary information automatically forms a search attitude, perception in external data and human behavior that confirms the available information received from other persons or from documents);
• - boomerang effect (people usually subconsciously resist any strong external pressure). These effects must be taken into account when organizing interaction with communication partners.

• 1. The rule of putting oneself in the place of the interlocutor (reflection). It is recommended to consciously perceive the interlocutor, try to look at the situation through his eyes. This allows you to penetrate into the inner world of a partner, to determine his state, intentions, motives, thoughts and feelings.
• 2. The rule of typing the interlocutor . It is recommended to begin observation by identifying the types of communication partners according to well-known psychological typologies. For example, a certain typology is possessed by people belonging to different age, social, professional groups, to different temperaments.
• 3. Individualization rule . Based on the typological characteristics of the interlocutor, one should not be limited to general characteristics, but concretize in the future the collected psychological information, consider the main personal qualities of a person (social, professional, individual).
• 4. Rule of motor playing . It is recommended to repeat some components of the partner's behavior: take the same posture, facial expression, join the dynamics of movement, manner and content of speech.
• 5. The rule of resistance to socio-psychological effects that reduce the reliability of psychological observation. The observer should try to be objective, independent, not to succumb to the first impression, not to judge a person only by directly observed facts. It is important to evaluate the interlocutor not by one detail, but by a complex of psychological signs (facial expressions, gestures, intonation, tempo of movements, etc.); study the interlocutor at different moments, in different situations, change the conditions of observation. It is advisable to double-check your impressions, compare the results of observation with what was previously known about the person, take into account the influence of national traditions, upbringing, environment, physical health, in order to avoid mistakes in the interpretation of non-verbal behavior.
• 6. The rule of fixing the elements of appearance and behavior of the interlocutor . Recording the results of observations allows you to better study them in the future. There are three main ways of fixing the observed signs:
  • - fixing the results of observation in the process of communication, if possible, imperceptibly for the subject of the study;
  • - the use of technical means (video and sound recording) in the course of communication; - recording the results of observation immediately after communication.

First impression is a complex psychological phenomenon that includes several components: sensory, emotional and logical (value judgments). Research by the Russian scientist A.A. Bodalev showed that the first impression is formed within the first 2-3 minutes and then subconsciously affects a person. At the same time, the share of non-verbal signals during the first 12 seconds of communication during acquaintance accounts for approximately 92% of the total volume of received information.

At the first impression, the assessment of the psychological qualities of a personality occurs without a comprehensive analysis of its characteristics; it depends on the emotional and aesthetic attitude to the perceived person's appearance.

The following factors influence the formation of the first impression :

• - characteristics of the perceived person
• - characteristics of the perceiver
• - social background of communication

The creation of the first impression of a person is influenced by such characteristics of the perceived person, as a design of appearance (style of clothing, hairstyle), human expression (emotional states, posture, look, smile), demonstrated behavior, features of communication. All other things being equal, most people in appearance more quickly notice features that are deviations from the models of appearance that these people have taken as the norm. In this regard, we can talk about the most expressive external types that attract the attention of most people. To better understand your communication partner, you need to consider how he tries to present himself.

Showing various emotions, showing a state of depression, restraint or, conversely, optimism, carelessness, a person often seeks to disguise his actual mental state at the moment and his attitude to the current situation. Sometimes people consciously play certain roles.

The formation of the first impression of a partner is also influenced by the characteristics of the perceiver. . Very often, a projection mechanism is involved in creating an impression of another person, when the perceiver can ascribe to another person features that are actually inherent in himself, and not in the person being assessed.

For example, self-confident people are more likely to rate others as benevolent and disposed towards them, while people who are not self-confident see others as cold and disloyal to them. At the same time, the projection mechanism manifests itself not only at the level of states, but also at the level of projection of personal qualities, when a person can see in a communication partner those negative traits that characterize him as a personality.

Negative communication experiences also significantly reduce the effectiveness of the communication process. Those communication errors that led at one time to unpleasant consequences for a person, as it were, accumulate in his subconscious and, when the situation repeats, make it difficult to communicate with the current partner. This can be a demeanor, and gesticulation, and speech, and external resemblance to the partner with whom the person had a negative experience of communication.

The formation of the first impression is influenced by conditions , in which communication unfolds, or the social background on which the process of communication and cognition of another person takes place. For example, a tall person against the background of short people seems even taller, and a calm face against the background of laughing faces attracts more attention. The importance of the social background in the formation of the impression of a person is clearly seen in experiments. So, in one experiment, a man with an inconspicuous appearance was presented to two groups of strangers, who then had to tell about the impression that this person made on them. At the same time, a man was invited to one of the named groups together with a woman with a bright attractive appearance, and to another he was accompanied by an ugly and slovenly dressed woman.

As a result, the first group of experts rated the positive qualities of men much higher than the second, and the general attitude towards men on the part of the first group also turned out to be more favorable.

Thus, the first impression is very significant for further interaction. Therefore, each person needs to be able to "present himself" in the best way, to highlight his undoubted advantages and smooth out the shortcomings. Taking into account the basic laws of people's perception of each other, you can consciously form your image, consciously influencing the other person. Appearance standards play the role of a kind of "triggering mechanisms" for the process of interpreting human properties.

The degree of generalization of the standards used by a person in assessing the behavior and mental qualities of a personality increases with the formation of the personality of the person himself, from preschool childhood to old age. So, a first grader with little experience of communication and a small stock of knowledge about people, the content of the standards is very narrow, elementary and specific.

Later, the student meets new people with different physical appearance, but performing the same actions and, conversely, outwardly similar, but behaving differently. He accumulates knowledge about the assessments that are given by the adult behavior and personality traits of these people that are significant to him, as a result of which there is a gradual increase in the generalization of standards. An increase in the number of standards also occurs with frequent communication with different categories of people, differing in sex, age, professional affiliation, etc. Thus, a person accumulates an unequal store of impressions during his life. In addition to the standards that allow attributing a partner to a class in the system of “types” formed in the perceiver, there are also “sets of qualities” that a person ascribes to those persons whose “class”, it seems to him, has been established.

This phenomenon of "attribution" is called stereotyping, and the sets of attributed qualities are called evaluative stereotypes. The mechanism of stereotyping is as follows: having found certain (characteristic) features in the behavior and appearance of another person, the perceiver assigns him to the corresponding category of people and endows all the properties inherent in these people. V.N. Parfenov identifies 3 classes of standards and stereotypes interpretations of personality in appearance:

• - anthropological,
• - social,
• - emotional and aesthetic.
• 1. Anthropological standards and stereotypes are the most common, established in the practice of communication. Noticing in the external appearance of a person (for example, a face) a trait of some anthropological type, the perceiver ascribes to the partner the personality traits of the corresponding nationality, gender, age or familiar person ("soft gentle face - looks like my mother, very feminine character, gentle, loyal" ).
• 2. With the social method of interpretation, the knower proceeds from the standards of external appearance as signs of social status and role functions of the perceived person. Finding signs of a social standard in external appearance, people classify each other as a specific social category of people and characterize the personality of another in accordance with ideas about this category (for example, judgments like "officer", "athlete", "teacher" imply a certain set of personal qualities) ... At the same time, attention is paid to the design of the appearance with clothing and cosmetics. It is noted that in social standards and stereotypes there is a more adequate reflection of the personality of a person in comparison with anthropological ones.
• 3. Emotional and aesthetic standards determine the general attitude towards a person, while taking into account the physical beauty, attractiveness and expression of the face, and psychological qualities, as it were, "come out" of this attitude, are conditioned by it.

The emotional path of interpretation can go both from the attitude towards the face as a whole (emotional-integrative path), and from the aesthetic assessment of its individual features (primarily lips, eyes, nose, less often - chin, forehead, cheekbones) (emotional-analytical path) ... Examples of judgments: "sweet smile - quiet, modest", "haughty expression - arrogant person." Most often, there is an emotional-integrative way of interpretation, based on the expression of the face as a whole.

As a result of the perception and cognition of each other by people, a psychological portrait of a communication partner is formed.

A psychological portrait is a description of a person, which includes a complex of personal characteristics. The set of characteristics is determined depending on the specific task (professional selection, career guidance, psychological counseling, etc.). When compiling a psychological portrait of a person, a whole complex of personality parameters is usually taken into account , such as:

• - biopsychic properties (temperament, sex and age characteristics, health status);
• - mental properties and processes (features of the intellectual, cognitive and emotional-volitional spheres of the personality);
• - characterological qualities expressing different attitudes: attitude towards other people (sociability, dominance, tact, friendliness, willingness to compromise);
• - attitude to business (responsibility, hard work);
• - attitude towards oneself (modesty, complacency, insecurity, pride); attitude towards property (generosity or greed, neatness or slovenliness);
• - orientation of the personality (needs, motives, life plans, value orientations, attitudes);
• - mental education (knowledge, abilities, skills, habits, life and professional experience, stereotypes of behavior);
• - socio-psychological characteristics of behavior (social and interpersonal status; lifestyle and work, communication style).

Such a set of parameters can only be obtained as a result of a comprehensive psychodiagnostic study using tests. However, to solve many problems, you can use another the method of drawing up a psychological portrait of a person - by external signs.

To compile a psychological portrait based on appearance, it is advisable to consider the following external manifestations of personality:

• - facial expressions, gestures, tempo-intonation features of speech (indicate a person's temperament);
• - vocabulary and character of statements (evidence of professional affiliation);
• - the content of statements (speaks of motives, value orientations);
• - pronunciation (speaks of nationality, places of permanent or long-term residence);
• - gestures, manner of wearing clothes (help to judge age, experience and status).

The objectivity of a psychological portrait can be achieved only as a result of identifying and evaluating the entire complex of external signs of a person's states and properties. It is noted that in psychological portraits, compiled on the basis of external signs, two types of judgments are distinguished:

• - emotional-value judgments (they depend on the impressions and perception of the perceiver, as well as on his attitudes and ideas, and are determined by sympathy or antipathy towards a person);
• - descriptive characteristics (they relate to the perceived person and are determined by his personality characteristics).

Value judgments are divided into actual value judgments and value judgments. The actual value judgments are the most general and least informative statements, especially if they are not reasoned (for example, "positive girl"), so it is better not to use them in communication. Evaluative and interpretive judgments ("good", "evil") can also be reasoned or unreasoned ("a person is self-confident and stupid").

It is best to use descriptive characteristics that recreate the psychological appearance of a person - these are personality traits, associations, emotional-evaluative characteristics, features of the external appearance. The most interesting is the consideration of the possibilities of figurative generalization. Figurative generalization is especially closely related to a person's personality, it has a stronger effect on feelings than conceptual generalization, and most fully reflects reality, since it includes what is not realized, but is directly experienced, felt, felt. Therefore, the use of images and associations provides a person with new opportunities.

When identifying a person by signs of appearance by recreating an image-representation of a person, the compilation of a psychological portrait occurs with the help of supporting points - benchmarks, which allow to give personality typification based on the most general characteristics (such as the ability to "designate" a person in one word, giving him a figurative characteristic) ...

Figurative characteristics give a more complete and vivid idea of \u200b\u200ba person than just a list of personal characteristics. The use of visual and well-known characteristics allows in some cases to "guess" different details of behavior, habits, zodiac sign and other individual characteristics, which is inaccessible to conventional logic.

The following terms can be used when recreating a psychological image:

• - generally accepted personality characteristics ("serious");
• - integral definitions of personality (“modern”, “survived a lot”, “interesting”, “muddlehead”, “gray personality”);
• - figurative characteristics ("Tatiana Larina");
• - associations;
• - terms that psychologically interpret expressive behavior ("sullen face");
• - physiognomic concepts (reflecting the connection between features of appearance and character: "smart forehead", "strong-willed chin").

The following can be used as images:

• - names of animals ("owl", "chanterelle", "piglet");
• - plant names ("weeping willow", "tiger lily");
• - Characters of literary works ("kolobok", "Pierrot", "gnome");
• - ideas about any social category, role ("teacher", "warrior", "nurse", "soul of the company");
• - inanimate objects ("cold star", "toy").

Each person, entering into interpersonal interaction, from the first minutes of communication forms a certain impression of a partner based on external signs. Understanding the psychological characteristics of a person, his mental state, mood, motivation for communication allows you to determine the prospects for communication and build the necessary line of behavior with him. This is especially important for persons whose professional activities are related to interaction in the "person - person" system, for example, for teachers, psychologists, personnel managers, managers. They need to be able to analyze the external manifestations of students, clients or employees, correlate their external appearance with the internal psychological world and correctly interpret the observed facts.

Methods of visual psychodiagnostics allow you to quickly collect information about a person, compose his psychological portrait, and predict the effectiveness of a particular human activity. Methods of visual psychodiagnostics are actively used in psychotherapy, social and psychological trainings, advertising, and various branches of psychology. In addition, the skills of visual psychodiagnostics can be applied by a person to himself. It is often difficult for many people to understand their own psychological problems due to the work of defense mechanisms. And studying the signals of your physical body allows you to realize your actual psychological state, your true desires and needs.

The object of social perception (the object of observation) is the author of the message that the observer (subject) receives, interprets. Social psychologists have long been researching the characteristics of appearance and behavior that are most important in terms of perception and understanding.

At the moment of perception, a person is observed for the subject of observation of a certain set of socially significant signs, thanks to which psychological properties and states are traditionally transmitted in a certain culture. These signs, sometimes called "perceptual hooks," are a particular social font for a given person. The perception of a person's appearance, the expression of his emotions evokes emotional responses and reactions in people. The ability to read expressive movements involves a subtle understanding of all shades and nuances in facial expression, gesture, posture and body movements of another person. Individual psychological personality traits can be recognized by facial expressions, pantomime, physiological reactions that accompany emotions - vascular, respiratory, secretory; according to the features of the body structure, facial features, drawings on the hands, fingers and other natural and biological characteristics.

Visual psychodiagnostics examines all external manifestations of the type and behavior of a person in order to study its personal meaning. Visual psychodiagnostics (the term was introduced by the Ukrainian psychologist V. cheeki him in 1989) is a purely applied knowledge that is especially necessary for specialists working with people to diagnose their personal, individual-typical and professionally important qualities.

The practical orientation and relative accessibility of visual psychodiagnostics, the need for a wide implementation of applied psychology in various areas of social activity, provides for the possibility of conducting individual examinations by persons without special psychological training: teachers, doctors, managers of various levels, personnel specialists, etc.

The study and systematization of data on the characteristic differences in the appearance of people and personality, their expressive movements has a long history. Since ancient times, for example, various moral and psychological characteristics have been attributed to a certain type of body construction. On the basis of this, scientists have created quite a few typologies based on the characteristics of a person's physique.

Physiognomy, phrenology, palmistry, astrology, graphology are areas of knowledge that tried to find out its psychological essence by the external signs of certain parts of the body, expressive movements and other features of human behavior.

Physiognomy (from the Greek. Physis - nature, gnomon - knowing) developed a system of correspondence between facial features of a person with the properties of his character, abilities and talents. Physiognomy originated in ancient times. Pythagoras is considered the founder, Aristotle was engaged in it. Already Aristotle and Plato proposed to determine the character of a person, looking for features of similarity with some animal in his appearance, and then identifying its character, as in the eastern horoscope, with the character of this animal. So, according to Aristotle, a thick nose, like a bull's, meant laziness, a wide nose with large nostrils like a pig's - stupidity; a nose like a lion's - importance; hair is thin, like the wool of goats, sheep and hares - fear, hair hard, like lions and boars - courage.

The most famous was the physiognomic system of Bad Casper Lavater, who considered the main way of human cognition to be the study of the structure of the head, the configuration of the skull, facial expressions, etc.

Austrian physician F.I. Gal created Phrenology, a theory in which he tried to systematize and develop further knowledge about the connection between the mental characteristics of a person and the external shape of her skull. The results of studying various expressive movements were reflected in the works of Ch. Darwin ("On the Expression of Feelings", 1872), V. Bekhterev ("Objective Psychology", 1910), who argued that psychology should study not only the phenomena of consciousness and the unconscious, but also external manifestations of human activity, since they are an expression of his psyche.

In the depths of millennia, the sources of palmistry are hidden - the doctrine of the connection between the structure of the hand, the shape of the fingers, bulges and depressions, lines and grooves in the palm with the inner essence of a person, his past and future. Palmistry was known in ancient China and India, as well as in Greece and Rome long before our era. Now there is even a modern name - dermatoglyphics, which studies patterns on the palm of a person. its data is used in forensics, medicine, genetics, psychology, psychogenetics, etc.

In 1965, under the leadership of Academician B. Ananyev, a comprehensive study of applicants was carried out at the Leningrad University. Along with measurements of the body of young people, including body weight, height, size of the head, hands, etc., the drawing of the palm and fingers was recorded. Naturally, applicants, as in any normal person, when they are asked to make fingerprints, the question arose: will it not be used to harm? The researchers, of course, reassured the most suspicious, explaining that this had nothing to do with the fact of admission to the university, but was of scientific interest. But even a simple observation of applicants by psychologists at the time of “skin readings” showed differences in their behavior. Some led calmly, did not fuss, their hands were not broken, their pupils did not dilate. Others showed conspicuous anxiety, to the point of refusing to take fingerprints. As a result of observing the behavior of applicants at the time of taking fingerprints and simultaneously fixing the skin patterns of the fingers, the researchers saw a connection between these seemingly so distant human features. Indeed, what connection could there be between stress resistance and the type of skin pattern on the fingers ?!

About a year later (in 1966), when the data processing came to an end, the TI book appeared. Gladkovaya "Skin patterns of the palm and feet of a monkey and a man". It presents a fairly large statistical material on the characteristic features of finger patterns in peoples of all parts of the world. For example, the finger pattern prevails among the Bushmen, which is very rare among other peoples. What's the matter? To answer this question, consider typical finger patterns.

Most often, the finger pattern in the form of "loops" occurs. A little less often - "spirals". Less commonly, a pattern is called an "arc".

When the research data were processed, it turned out that in persons with a strong balanced nervous system, loops dominate, strong but not in vain-spirals. The arc was observed only in owners of a weak nervous system.

In percentage terms, it looks like this: the choleric person has more than 50 percent of the spirals (the rest are loops); sanguine - more than 50 loops (the rest are spirals); phlegmatic person - all loops; melancholic - at least one arc, and the more of them, the weaker the nervous system, and therefore, the lower the person's working capacity.

The connection of the angle formed on the palm by three triradius with the mental abilities of a person has also been established. One triradius - "a" - is located at the base of the palm, and "b" and "c" - at the base of the index finger and little finger (see picture).

If the angle formed by the triradius "b" - "a" - "c" is in the range from 33 ° to 57 °, then you can not worry about your mental abilities. But if the angle is less or more than this range, then the intellect must be developed. True, this is one hundred percent, while it is difficult to say, because psychogenetics is just developing.

Astrology has no less ancient history, which developed the planetary and zodiacal typology of man, as well as graphology, which looked for logical connections between the handwriting and the character of the individual. The study of the relationship between the external signs of a person and his psychological characteristics in the history of the development of knowledge was carried out in two directions: the first direction set the goal on the basis of external signs to identify the psychological essence, the second - on the basis of internal properties (in particular psychological) to identify personality types that differ in external signs.

Physiognomy, phrenology, palmistry, astrology, graphology are areas of knowledge that tried to reveal its psychological essence based on external signs of certain parts of the body, expressive movements and other features of human behavior.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. under the influence of anthropologists who drew attention to differences in body structure, as well as psychiatrists, they saw individual differences in propensities for mental illness, the concept of the relationship between physique and typological characteristics of a person was further developed, in particular by the French doctor Claude Ciro, who, depending on predominance in the body of one of the main systems (respiratory, digestive, muscular or cerebral) identified the corresponding physique. These views have significantly influenced the formation of modern constitutional theories that have become widespread in the psychology of individual differences.

The perception of a person's appearance, the expression of his emotions evokes emotional responses and reactions in people. The ability to read expressive movements involves a subtle understanding of all shades and nuances in facial expression, gesture, posture and body movements of another person. Individual psychological personality traits can be recognized by facial expressions, pantomime, physiological reactions accompanying emotions - vascular, respiratory, secretory; according to the features of the structure of the body, facial features, drawings of the hand, fingers and other natural and biological characteristics.

The study and systematization of data on the characteristic differences in the appearance of people and personality, their expressive movements has a long history. Since ancient times, for example, various moral and psychological characteristics have been attributed to a certain type of physique. On the basis of this, scientists have created quite a few typologies based on the characteristics of a person's physique. The most systematized one of these typologies is presented in Eugene Ledo's "Treatise on the Human Physiomy" (1815), which describes the five main body types and gives their psychological characteristics. This typology is based on the assertion that the structure of the human body corresponds mainly to five geometric shapes: a quadrangle, a stake, an oval, a triangle, and a cone. According to E. Ledo, each type includes hidden abilities, instincts and emotions that are activated or remain inactive depending on the development of the personality, its life path. So, the discrepancy between the type and temperament gives rise to internal conflicts, because of which there are contradictions in feelings, wishes, actions, manifested in character freaks.

The constitutional typology of personality was proposed by Kretschmer on the basis of identifying four main types of constitution of the physique (physique).

1st body type - asthenic - a fragile person, with a flat chest, narrow shoulders, elongated and thin limbs, an elongated face, but a highly developed nervous system, a brain;

2nd body type - a picnic - a person of small or medium height, with pronounced adipose tissue, a convex chest, a large belly, a round head on a short neck;

3rd type of physique - athletic - a person with pronounced muscles, proportional to a strong physique, a wide shoulder girdle;

The 4th type of statuary - diplastic - a person with an irregular constitution.

To the selected types of body structure, Kretschmer correlated certain types of personality.

Asthenic - he is withdrawn, prone to thinking, to abstraction, it is difficult to adapt to the environment, sensitive, vulnerable, "people who feel fine", idealistic dreamers, cold domineering natures and egoists, rusks and weak-willed, they oscillate between sensitivity and coldness, between the exacerbation and dullness of feelings ("he will offend another and at the same time he will be offended himself"), persistent, consistent, unpretentious, enduring. The reverse side of these advantages is the lack of benevolence, pleasant natural philanthropy, they can be divided into the following groups: 1) pure idealists and moralists; 2) despots and fanatics; 3) people of cold calculation.

Picnic - his emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness, he is sociable, frank, good-natured, realistic in his views, "funny talkers", calm humorists, sentimental quiet, carefree lovers of life, active practices. Among them, the following types of historical leaders can be distinguished: 1) brave fighters, folk heroes; 2) live organizers of a large scale; 3) conciliatory policies.

Athletics - they are of two types: energetic, sharp, self-confident, aggressive or low-spirited, with restrained gestures and facial expressions, low flexibility of thinking.

There are fewer absolutely "pure" body types than mixed ones. Each of the personality types identified in the above classifications can also be fixed on the basis of morphological features. The classification of psychological types by K. Jung was the basis of socionics. In visual terms, according to socionics, nality-irrationality is better observed in the face profile.

Rational profiles are sharper outlined, more angular, stand out by individual details or their combination (line of the nose, nasolabial wrinkles, chin, brow ridges, etc.); "irrational" - have softer and smoother lines of the profile of the face.

Intuitive types tend to have a high forehead, a poorly defined chin, or a small triangular chin; their faces resemble an oval rather than a circle.

Sensory types are chubby, the chin is firm, and the forehead, if high, then sloping back.

Thought and emotional types differ in the activity of the upper and lower parts of the face. The first manipulates more of the upper part (wrinkles the forehead, opens and squints his eyes), and the second - the lower part (smile, teeth, cheeks). Thinking types are more "bony", in emotional ones - briocheina and the lower thorax prevail, in sensory types - muscle mass (the best bodybuilders, weightlifters, wrestlers, as a rule, belong to the sensory type). Intuitive types have long legs among all, they are also morphologically more characteristic of long fingers and a long neck.

No less important in the visual communication of the masses is a specific sign system that is studied by the science of kinesics. The Swedish researcher K. Birdwistl proposed to single out the unit of human body movements - kon (Greek Kipeta - movement), or kinema (similar to a phoneme in linguistics). Kinemor-phi (something like phrases) are formed from kiniv, which are perceived in a communication situation. On the basis of Birdwhistle's suggestions, a kind of "dictionary" of body movements was created, even works on the number of kiniv in different national cultures appeared. For the purpose of determining the "grid" of the main areas of the human face, body, hands, etc. Birdwhistle divided the entire human body into 8 zones: face, head, right arm, left arm, right leg, left leg, upper body, lower body.

The meaning of building a dictionary is that the units - kinas - are tied to certain areas of the body and then be recorded in body movements. A similar option was proposed for recording facial expressions, facial expressions. More than 20,000 descriptions of facial expressions have been identified in the literature. To classify them, researcher P. Ekman proposed a technique called FAST - Facial Affect Scoring Technique. The principle is the same: the face is conventionally divided into three zones by horizontal lines (eyes and forehead, nose and nose, mouth and chin). Further, there are six main emotions, which are most often expressed with the help of mimic means: joy, anger, surprise, disgust, fear, sadness. Fixing the emotion of the corresponding "zone" allows you to determine more or less correctly facial movements. This technique is common in medical (Pathopsychological) practice.

Knowledge of the external signs of a person, their relationship with other personality traits is very necessary for a psychologist, doctor, manager, actor, in general, for every specialist whose activities are related to communication with people. Recognition of individual psychological characteristics of a person through direct visual perception, as already noted, is of great importance in non-verbal communication. Therefore, it is not surprising that modern science is showing great interest in the study of "body language".

Thus, the modern Russian researcher I. Sternin presents a system of the most typical postures and gestures that indicate the attention or inattention of your interlocutor (audience).

Attention to the speaker can be talked about if:

the audience's gaze is directed towards the speaker;

body position - the body is tilted towards the speaker; the listener moved to the edge of the chair to be closer to him;

tilting the head to the side is a sign of interest. Inattention is evidenced by the following:

the listener's gaze is directed to the side;

The body is tense, the landing is straight, the legs are brought together and are level on the floor (this posture often imitates attention)

The head is not tilted, the listener keeps it straight, the spine is straight;

The listener makes the following movements: the chairman straightens up, his shoulders rise, then lower, his gaze begins to wander around - this indicates a loss of thought, a loss of attention;

The body acquires a posture directed towards the exit;

Legs extended forward and crossed, body thrown back, head bowed forward (often signifies disagreement)

The chairman is supported by the whole palm;

Automatic tapping of limbs (fingers, feet) or some object (pen cap, etc.) on the floor or table surface; it is an expression of impatience, and the faster the tapping rate, the more impatience;

drawing foreign objects on paper;

stiffness of the eyes, unblinking gaze (imitation of attention)

light stroking of the nose;

tightly clasped hands;

stroking the neck (in men);

adjusting the hairstyle, swinging the leg, looking for something in the purse (for women);

the hand touches the ear and goes down; or - lips and goes down (hidden desire to object, interrupt)

buttoning a jacket (for men).

When interpreting a gesture, many factors should be taken into account: national and cultural traditions, a person's age, physiological state, and the like. But if non-verbal moments contradict what a person says, then it is worth believing them, and not the words.

So, 80% of success in communication is provided by a well-developed psychological observation. For effective communication, it is necessary to be well oriented in roles, states, personality traits. The source of information about this is the appearance of the communication partner, his speech, behavior, and especially non-verbal behavior.

Establishing the correct idea of \u200b\u200banother person requires prolonged repeated contact and significant efforts of the intellect, intuition and feelings. In case of short-term contact, it is usually necessary to rely on the established standards of perception. By identifying the interlocutor with a certain standard on the basis of some common features between them, we simultaneously ascribe to him many other qualities, which, in our experience, of course happen in people of this type. Here it is necessary to use a whole system of correcting your estimates.

Visual diagnostics of personality traits was developed based on the teachings of psychologists about the properties of character. The dominants got their names from the terms used in psychiatry that characterize a particular mental disorder of personality.

However, dominants, or, as they are also called, accentuations, are only personality traits in which certain character traits are excessively enhanced. This leads to a person's tendency to apply the same models of behavior in different situations, to choose the appropriate style in clothes and accessories.

The essence of the technique lies in the fact that according to external signs (visual psychodiagnostics), it is possible to determine character traits - dominants. Thus, in real time, without the use of psychological tests, one can see the psychological and communicative characteristics of the interlocutor by his behavior, the manner of building communication and also by his appearance.

8 dominants:

1. Paranoid dominant (purposeful).
2. Hysteroid dominant (demonstrative).
3. Epileptoid dominant (stuck).
4. Epileptoid dominant (excitable).
5. Schizoid dominant (strange).
6. Hypertensive dominant (cheerful).
7. Emotive dominant (sensitive).
8. Anxious dominant (fearful).

Paranoid dominant (single-minded)

These are usually people with a powerful inner core. They live mainly by their own idea, fight for it, suffer, defend. They are not receptive to information from the outside. They listen only to their own opinion ("One is mine, the other is wrong ..."), which often results in unwillingness to listen to others, leads to the desire to avoid problems. People of the paranoid type are strategists, but not tacticians. Their goals are global and the scale is enormous. It is this type of people who stubbornly go towards a seemingly unattainable goal for others. The life of such people is built on principles that allow them to calmly walk over their heads. The basic principle by which they live is: "He who is not with us is against us." They tend to lie within the framework of the idea, only the final result is considered important, and as you know, all means are good to achieve the goal. They are demanding of themselves and others and always appreciate the merits and demerits of the interlocutor. Usually, people with a paranoid dominance are not sensitive to stress. This is definitely a strong personality type.

Clothing: People of a paranoid psychotype are characterized by neatness, a classic style of dress during working hours and a "military" style in their free time. Usually there is nothing superfluous in this style, all accessories are "in place".

Mimicry: Domineering, confident.

Gestures: Wide, chopping, pointing. Such people tend to often break their distance with the interlocutor in order to confuse him.

Speech: Confident. A mentoring tone is possible. Such people like to talk about topics that interest only them. They are consistent in presentation (firstly, secondly, thirdly ...) and often use harsh language, words and judgments.

Positive Communication Model: To establish rapport with such people, it is recommended to demonstrate your strength (status). In the discussion, make references to laws or opinions of authoritative people. It is worth giving a clear structure of the arguments (firstly, secondly, thirdly ...). The most successful interlocutor with a pronounced paranoid dominant will listen to a powerful, authoritative person than to a subordinate. You can try to show the importance of your suggestions for solving the global idea of \u200b\u200bthe paranoid.

Hysteroid dominant (demonstrative)

The hysteroid dominant promotes the desire to please. Such people often present themselves as endowed with an acting gift. Life for them is a theater, and those around them are spectators. From this they behave demonstratively and strive to be noticed. In communication, one can observe mannerism and excessive talkativeness. Usually hysterics believe in what has been said, despite the possible inaccuracy of information or inconsistency of facts. This is the result of a desire to embellish any story. Sometimes it is enough just to listen and the "inconsistencies" will manifest themselves. Such a person uses every opportunity to speak out. It is a weak type of the nervous system.

Clothing: Often “defiant”, either bright or with extravagant details, it is complemented by a large number of bijoux, accessories and bright makeup for women. In men, you can see the excessive presence of jewelry or any other conspicuous appearance details. For example, a scarf, an abundance of rings, etc.

Mimicry: All emotions on the face of people with a predominant hysterical dominant look hypertrophied. These are wide smiles, laughter with an open mouth, sadness with tears, universal grief.

Gestures: Wide, picturesque gestures and accented poses prevail.

Speech: Emotional and expressive with dramatic breaks.

Positive Communication Model: With such an interlocutor, the best position is the listener. A person with a predominantly hysterical dominance reveals more if they pretend to believe in the game. If you praise such an interlocutor, then he will make any decision in your favor. To catch a lie, you just have to ask to repeat the story.

Epileptoid dominant (stuck)

One of the varieties of people with a predominant epileptoid dominant is the stuck epileptoid. This means that, due to his characteristics, such a person is rigid, poorly switches from one to another. Often these are systemic, punctual, unhurried, pragmatic people. Preparation is important for them if any decision is to be made. They should always have everything in their place. This category of people is intolerant when someone changes its order. Such people are used to planning and writing everything down. The life principle of a stuck epileptoid: "My home is my fortress." Contacts tend to get stuck poorly. From the outside, it may seem that this is a gloomy or even evil person. Also, stuck people are exceptionally picky when choosing friends. However, if such a person called you a friend, he will never betray and, if necessary, sacrifice everything for you. The epileptoid loves his job, very rarely changes jobs. His social reference point is his family.

Clothing: Practical and comfortable. At work, classic clothes, in everyday life he prefers casual.

Mimicry: The look is direct, confident, sometimes the interlocutor may find it heavy. Emotional outbursts are rare and insignificant.

Gestures: Clear, verified.

Speech: Msluggish, sluggish.

Positive Communication Model: A conversation with such an interlocutor is successful if you give him a coherent reasoned system of evidence. The process should take place without fuss and spontaneous manifestations. The epileptoid must see "its" interest, then cooperation is guaranteed for you.

Epileptoid dominant (excitable)

This feature of people with a pronounced epileptoid dominant (excitability) determines the category of tough and cruel people. They can play sports or take part in competitive activities. Excitable epileptoids, as well as stuck epileptoids, are often neat and tidy. Such people prefer short haircuts, short nails, sporty style of clothing. They seem to be always ready to join the fight. You can also notice a love of order and hierarchy, often cynicism towards others. Such people are blindly faithful to instructions. Their principle is "I followed the order ...". In the means of achieving goals, excitable are illegible and easily accuse others, including falsely, as if testing strength. Unlike stuck epileptoids, these people are unpredictable and impulsive in their decisions. They strive to achieve their personal goals, and to everything else they treat according to the principle "Do not burden ...". They are prone to antisocial behavior, alcoholism, drug addiction. It is a strong type of nervous system.

Clothing: Excitable epileptoid is expressed through athletic clothing.

Mimicry: The look is direct, aggressive, facial expressions are often shallow and constrained.

Gestures: Heavy, accentuated by muscle involvement (flexing muscles). This is a gross show of strength.

Speech: Mslow, tough.

Positive Communication Model: In dealing with such a psychotype of people, it is recommended to maintain a distance and maintain a hard line without concessions (otherwise, it will immediately begin to push through). It is also important to show your importance and authority in the issue of interest. At the same time, it is advisable not to provoke an excitable epileptoid into rash actions. Or in case of a “breakdown” of the interlocutor, it will be difficult to keep the situation under control. The epileptoid will gladly respond to the offer "to be friends against ...".

Schizoid Dominant (Strange)

People with a schizoid dominant have their own ideas about reality, their own vision of situations. These are people who have their own personal world, where they themselves decide which laws to obey. They are characterized by creativity without patterns and unpredictable behavior. They are highly introverted. Their peculiarity is that they are "Not like everyone else." They are often distinguished by their awkward and extraordinary appearance. These are either seemingly fragile people, or awkward, somewhere grotesque, sometimes awkward, outwardly angular. The type of nervous system in such people is weak.

Clothing: Often their clothes are inharmonious, can be sloppy and "dazzle" with unexpected details. Unlike the hysteroid dominant, schizoids do not have a clear "image".

Mimicry: A characteristic look "past the interlocutor to nowhere ..." and possible mismatch of facial expressions and gestures (for example, joy on the face, and clenched fists).

Gestures: Also angular, inconsistent and awkward.

Speech: Quite highly intelligent, with an abundance of terminology, possibly indicating various sources of information.

Positive Communication Model: Given the introversion of the dominant, personal communication is a burden for such people. Schizoid individuals will prefer correspondence communication. If personal contact is necessary, in a conversation with them, it is necessary to avoid harsh assessments and direct criticism (schizoids are very touchy). It is better to set tasks, focusing on the final result, and to report (if it is the boss), only by specific results achieved. Such a person does not perceive processes.

Hypertensive dominant (cheerful)

Hypertensive dominant characterizes energetic people who love life in all forms. Such people are often optimistic and tend to find positive aspects in any situation. They are happy with everything new and never lose heart. They make contacts with pleasure, they like to communicate. They are characterized by wit and an adequate sense of humor. Such a person takes on several tasks at once and solves them. The hypertensive dominant is flexible and quickly switches from one case to another. Hypertimes tend to prefer extreme relaxation. It is a strong type of nervous system.

Clothing: Versatile, comfortable, free of movement.

Mimicry: Lively, cheerful, energetic.

Gestures: Cheerful, fast. In movements, hypertim is a fidget, often drops things, bumps into corners and people.

Speech: Carried away. Such people can start talking and miss the thread of the conversation, but then suddenly return to the topic.

Positive Communication Model: Open free communication with such people is recommended. They always make contact, are prone to excessive trust.

Emotive dominant (sensitive)

An emotive dominant is characteristic of a category of people distinguished by pronounced kindness. Such people are used to empathizing with others. In conversation, they usually listen carefully and show understanding. These are emotionally passive people who like to observe other people's experiences, rather than worry themselves. Emotives like watching TV programs, series, films with emotional scenes, reading books that cause feelings. There is a tendency to avoid conflicts, psychosomatic manifestations are possible, which intensify against the background of stress. It is a weak type of the nervous system.

Clothing: Soft, pleasant to the touch, concealing movements or just comfortable.

Mimicry: Weak, insecure. Such people can be distinguished by the effect of "wet eyes".

Gestures: Smooth, without angularity, can stroke their hands during a conversation.

Speech: Quiet. Emotives are more willing to listen, they hardly mind, they rarely lie.

Positive Communication Model: With such people, congruence, equality in communication is recommended. It is also important to show signs of trust and it is encouraged to find common interests.

Anxious dominant (fearful)

People with a pronounced anxious dominant are characterized by increased anxiety, constant reassurance against mistakes. Such people often cannot make decisions for themselves. They try to close themselves off from communication, they are very worried during contacts. They have their own calming rituals (for example, wiping your feet, spitting over your shoulder, before starting work they drink coffee every day “to work it out”). They are punctual and follow instructions to avoid penalties. These are people who are restrained in their statements and actions. Their principle is "Measure seven times, cut once." Weak type of nervous system.

Clothing: Dim and closed. Preferred are dark and gray solid colors or fabrics with small geometric patterns.

Mimicry: Weak, insecure.

Gestures: Self-soothing, anxious, often touches himself, wringing his hands. The poses of such people are constrained, as if in expectation that they are about to "break away" and run.

Speech: Quiet, insecure. Fear of saying the wrong thing.

Positive Communication Model: It is recommended that such an interlocutor show encouraging signs of attention, show trust, praise for any positive statement, it is better not to criticize unnecessarily. If criticism is necessary, it should be presented in such a way that the opponent understands that there is nothing wrong with the current situation. Also, when communicating with “anxious” subordinates, it is necessary to give the most detailed, precise instructions.

If it is necessary to diagnose a personality dominant, it should be remembered that dominants are only enhanced character traits. These characteristics describe "ideal" categories of personality traits. In reality, an individual most often has several dominants (two or three dominants), but their severity can be "blurred", since a person has not one model of behavior, but several. Based on this technique, the diagnostician can suggest which behavior model is most consistent with successful interaction in a specific situation with a certain psychotype. To do this, in order to avoid erroneous assessments, you should always return yourself to the idea that appearance can be deceiving, like words. Therefore, the forecast for actions is often more qualitative.

Artem Pavlov (Moscow) is a consultant of special services and business in the field of behavioral analysis with more than 15 years of operational experience. Expert of visual psychodiagnostics of personality. Profiler. Physiognomist. Graphologist. Ex-intelligence officer. Founder of the Agency for Economic and Personnel Security "D.I".

The first physiognomic treatise, described by Aristotle, came down to us from the ancient Greeks. It expresses judgments about the unreliability of physiognomic methods, such as comparing the forms and "characters" of animals and people, studying racial differences in the structure of the body and the corresponding features of the psyche, establishing the specifics of behavior and emotional response depending on a person's appearance. There are many physiognomic systems, the most common of which were the systems of Gall, Porta, Lambroso, Lafater, and others (see, for example, A.A. Bodalev, 1983, E. Ledo, 1895).

Cultural traditions in visual diagnostics

The most famous works (personalities)

Charles Darwin in the book "On the Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals"

Charles Darwin in his book "On the Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals" wrote about the relationship between the usual facial expression and character. It was his ideas that formed the basis for various reference books on psychological interpretations of facial expressions. Darwin hypothesized that mimic movements were formed from useful actions. In other words, what is now an expression of emotion was formerly a reaction that had a certain adaptive meaning (for example, relaxing the muscles of the face - a smile expressing affability is the opposite of the muscle tension characteristic of hostile feelings). According to Darwin, facial expressions are due to innate mechanisms and depend on the type of animal. It follows that facial reactions must be closely related to certain emotions. Establishing such connections would make it possible to recognize emotions by facial expressions.

Durville "On Physiognomy" (1866)

The face is the part of the body that is easiest to read a thought. It bears the imprint of human intelligence. Mimicry is the most expressive. That is why on the pages of this book we will consider only physiognomic traits of a person. “The more cultured people become,” says Delestre, “the more expressive their face is in its details” (“On Physiognomy”). You may argue that the face sometimes lies, pretends. It is true that people often try to change their faces to mask their thoughts (Durville).

Everyone, to a greater or lesser extent, is engaged in physiognomy, without realizing it: "I am not afraid of the ruddy and bright faces of Antony and Dolabela," says Caesar. "But I am afraid of the thin, pale and gloomy faces of Brutus and Cassius" ). The innate ability of the Roman emperor to physiognomy did not deceive him, the history of his death proved this (Durville,) But only formed a truly scientific physiognomy.

His book "On Physiognomy" is a wonderful work that demonstrates a clear understanding of nature. Since Delestra, physiognomy has become a true art. With him we find concretized, healthy ideas of predecessors.

I. Lido "Treatise on the Human Face"

I. Lido ("Treatise on the Human Face") in three large volumes of his work complicates a lot, but adds little to what has already been acquired. Only his classification of human faces into eight planetary types is noteworthy.

In summary, we classify human forms into the following eight types:

1. A square shape with two main varieties, which we named Mars and Earth.

2. An oval shape with three main varieties, which we call the Sun, Mercury, Venus.

3. Three significant degenerative forms, two of which indicate thickening and more or less roundness - Jupiter, Moon, and the third indicates thinness - Saturn.

These eight human forms can be called pure types. In principle, all people could be reduced to one of these pure types. But this is not always the case: people with a classically simple morphology are an exceptional phenomenon: due to the long history of our heredity, we are all a mixture of these types. (Durville, p. 7)

Each of these authors studied not the whole face, but only a separate part. In fact, physiognomy was one of the first attempts to correlate with the personal psychological characteristics not of the whole face, but of its parts.

Physiognomy

Topographic relief of the face and profile

Physiognomy (from the Greek φύσις - nature, γνώμων - knowing) is a system of knowledge that allows you to determine the type of personality of a person and his mental qualities (both innate and acquired) based on an analysis of the characteristic features of the face and expression.

Physiognomy developed a system of correlation between human facial features and the main properties of his character, abilities and talents in the early childhood of a child. The proponents of physiognomy believed that its origin was at the origins of art. They even referred to the alleged genetically determined human ability to read the internal state by facial expressions and facial expressions. It was recognized that in everyday life these abilities are used subconsciously and that children are especially sensitive in this regard.

The main idea of \u200b\u200bLavater concerns the connection of the inner nature of a person with the muscles of the face, the subject of his observations was the lower part of the face and the facial profile.

The essence of Gall's teaching is that by the shape and location of the bulges and depressions on the skull of a person, one can, as it were, reveal his character, inclinations, and mental abilities.

Lambroso devoted his research to the study and description of the so-called "criminal man".

In Russia, Professor I. A. Sikorsky was an ardent supporter of physiognomy. I. A. Sikorsky attributed the greatest physiognomic significance to "changes in the face", depending on the work of numerous muscles, giving the face unusual mobility and variability. He believed that in this sense, facial expressions, as well as movements of the hands and fingers, are of great diagnostic value. The second place in this respect belongs to eye movements, often expressing subjective states. The next step in importance was assigned to expressive body movements (posture).

Photo portrait

In the study of the physical appearance of a person, many authors pay attention to the study of facial expressions in various areas of the face, drawing up schemes and classifications of emotional states by manifestations of expression, studying the degree of information content of various elements of appearance.

Most of the research is devoted to finding out how correctly a person is able to recognize the facial expressions of other people. In these studies, three types of material were used: drawings of facial expressions, photographs of images of emotions by actors, and photographs of spontaneous expressions of emotions.

C. Bell (see Bruce, Young, 2000) put forward several hypotheses regarding the role of facial muscles in the expression of emotions. His research was based mainly on the method of observation and deduction. The results of his experiments affect only part of such a complex system as facial expressions.

Systematic experiments on facial muscle movements were carried out by the French scientist Duchenne. He studied a particular patient who lost sensation of the facial muscles as a result of damage to the facial nerves. By acting on various facial muscles, Duchenne made them move independently. As a result, several graphic images of the face were compiled. As shown by the subsequent studies of I. Eibl-Eibesfeld (1989) and R. Ekman (1973, 1978), the most recognizable emotions of the human face arose as a result of the simultaneous impact on several muscle groups of the face.

The perception of facial expressions is a multidimensional process in which emotion recognition is only one of its aspects. There is a large amount of empirical material demonstrating various aspects of studying the perception of the human face.

In further research, especially in foreign psychological science, numerous experiments were carried out and scientific and theoretical developments were carried out related to attempts to establish whether a person's face, its individual parts, or their combined (artificial) totality, affect the formation of an impression of him. It should immediately be noted that the main direction of these studies was of a purely applied nature, focused on the needs of forensic science, advertising and PR-business. Nevertheless, the studies carried out, in particular by L.I. Ivanovskaya, B.Umar, Yu.V. Granskoy, V. Bruce, A. Young, J. Shephered and others, are also of theoretical importance for psychological science.

Here are some examples of experiments.

V. Bruce, A. Young, (2000) conducted a series of experiments on the influence of light and shade and contrast on facial perception, and found that our perception of faces is based on information contained in the patterns of relative light and shade, but contrast does not play such a significant role. as it might seem. The subjects were presented with photographs of people, then contour images of the same people were presented. In the first case, 90% of the subjects recognized the person depicted, in the second - only 47%. It is assumed that this can be explained by the absence of chiaroscuro in the contour image.

When recognizing an unfamiliar face, the external characteristics of the face (hairstyle, head size, etc.) dominate, while recognizing familiar faces, psychological characteristics. For unfamiliar faces, a face turned by ¾ is both remembered and recognized more easily than full face. For familiar faces, there is no difference. V. Bruce explains this by the fact that a face turned by ¾ in the image looks more voluminous (very well, for example, the length and shape of the nose is visible). Although the effect of perceiving a face from a certain point and at a certain angle suggests some influence on the perception of a three-dimensional outline, in reality it is still difficult to determine who is depicted. In another experiment, V. Bruce showed that external characteristics (chiaroscuro, pigmentation, colors) are very important for the normal process of perception. He invited some of his employees to scan their faces. On the obtained pictures he connected the points of the corresponding facial features and offered these images for identification by the same and other employees. Nobody recognized anyone.

Ph. Schyns and A. Oliva (see V. Bruce, A. Young, 2000) in order to show how information about the face can be determined by spatial parameters, conducted such an experiment: they superimposed a photograph of a man - British Prime Minister Tony Blair (in the image a bust in suit and tie) to a photograph of a woman - former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. The resulting image was presented to the subjects for identification. Blair's image is clearly visible when viewed from close range. When the same image is perceived from a distance of 1.5-2 meters, Thatcher's image is clearly visible. Ph. Schyns and A. Oliva explain this, first of all, by the specifics of our visual system, which, depending on the spatial position of the object, perceives the background and detailed components of the image in different ways (a person's ability to distinguish high- / Blair's face / and low- / Thatcher's face / frequency parameters.

Often in studies, facial details are used in various contexts in order to find out what kind of load they carry, how recognizable they are. Young and colleagues (1987) created "composite" images (the bottom half of one person was attached to the upper half of another person's image) and presented them to the subjects. The subjects found it extremely difficult to determine who the upper half of the face belongs to. The upper facial expression (eyes and forehead) was found to be influenced by other facial features (mouth, chin, part of the nose). However, this effect took place only under the condition of a very precise connection of the two halves (along the facial features and along the face oval). If the connection was incorrect, the effect disappeared.

A.W. Young, D. J. Hellawell, and D.C. Hay was split horizontally in the center of a photograph of several famous faces. The subjects were able to identify these faces by halves. When the halves of different faces were connected, it became difficult for the subjects to name the names of the people whose halves were connected (for example, the upper half of the photograph of Margaret Thatcher, the lower half of Princess Diana). However, the subjects' recognition ability increased when the joined faces were turned over.

Individual elements of the face differ in varying degrees of information content and significance.

The expressiveness of each individual element depends on the individual structure of the face. Facial elements are characterized by a number of features: contour, size and shape. The most informative is the general facial expression, then hair, eyes, eyebrows, lips, ears, nose, forehead. The main hypothesis about the mutual influence of individual parts of the human face was tested in the experimental studies of A. Young and his colleagues. They conducted a series of experiments using the so-called "compositional technique". The subjects were presented with several photographs of faces, cut in half horizontally. The subjects identified the halves presented in isolation with a high degree of accuracy. Scientists have come to the conclusion that we do not perceive facial features independently of each other.

Experiments J.W. Tonaka and M.J. Fara (1993) allowed them to conclude that the whole face is perceived as more informative than the collection of its individual parts. They conducted an experiment with the code name "Where is Larry's nose?" The subjects were presented with images of a whole face, isolated parts of the face, and a face composed of randomly spaced parts. It was necessary to determine where Larry's nose was. It turned out that when the nose is placed in a normal face, it is easier to identify than in other variants.

It can be said that the relationship between different facial features is as important as the features themselves. H.D. Ellis (1986) identified several basic facial characteristics that are regularly and reliably used by humans to describe and categorize human faces. This is the shape of the face, hair, age and all the main sizes of facial features.

Face recognition (characteristics, stages or process of recognition and the likelihood of being recognized) has been studied by many scientists - A. Young, J. Shephered, K. N. McWeeny, R.A. Johnston, V. Bruce, L.N. Ivanskaya, B. Umar, Yu.V. Granskaya and others.

Art portrait

Makeup

Make-up is the application of various types of decorative cosmetics to the skin of the face for the purpose of decorating, as well as camouflaging existing flaws. Make-up is not only drawing, but also modeling, correcting (correcting) the shape and color of the face. With the help of decorative preparations, the goal is to emphasize attractive facial features or to create some kind of characteristic image.

Cosmetologists and makeup artists have accumulated vast practical experience that allows them to create all sorts of illusions related to the shape of facial features, the expression of the eyes and mouth. Visual diagnostics of the face with makeup can be complicated by these illusions of perception.

Physiognomic schools

At the moment, there are several scientific teams that study the features of the structure, facial expression and its perception in connection with the assessment of the psychological characteristics of a person and his emotional state.

Paul Ekman Science School

Paul Ekman

Paul Ekman (born February 15, 1934 (19340215)) is an outstanding American psychologist, professor at the University of California at San Francisco, a leading specialist in the psychology of emotions, interpersonal communication, psychology and recognition of lies. Professor Ekman is known all over the world as the mastermind and consultant for the popular television series Lie to me, as well as the prototype for its protagonist, Dr. Lightman. Currently, Paul Ekman is the head of the Paul Ekman Group, a small company that develops methodologies and educational devices for the study of emotions and micro-expressions.

P. Eckman created a method for measuring the face, in which he listed all the facial muscles of six emotions. Then the models were compiled, which included three areas of the face. The subject's face in these experiments was, as it were, divided into three parts horizontally: eyebrow-forehead; eyes-eyelids and base of the nose; lower face and cheeks. The method is based on comparing the evaluated person with the reference. It is called the "facial coding method - FAST".

The scientific school of V.A. Drumbshchikova

Barabashchikov Vladimir Alexandrovich

VA Barabanshchikov - Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Education, Doctor of Psychology, Professor, Head. The laboratory for systemic research of the psyche at IPRAN, relying on a large theoretical and empirical material, made an attempt to reveal the general psychological nature of interpersonal perception, to describe the patterns of perception of expressive states and individual psychological characteristics of a stranger by photographing his face.

Interpersonal communication is considered by V.A. Drummershchikov in terms of the cognitive-communicative process, in which ideas about the individuality of the communicant, his assessment and attitude towards him (OH-concept) are formed and developed.

Diagnostics of non-verbal communication

Facial expressions

Facial expressions are understood as movements of the facial muscles. It should not be confused with physiognomy (the science by which the shape of the face can be used to judge the mental properties of a person). There are quite a few different kinds of literature (from strictly scientific to primitively popular) that interpret all types of facial expressions (see Labunskaya, 1999).

One of the main parameters for evaluating facial expressions is mobility.

• Strongly mobile facial expressions. Strongly mobile facial expressions testifies to the liveliness and rapid change in the perception of impressions and internal experiences, to mild excitability from external stimuli. Such excitability can reach manic proportions.

• Inactive facial expressions. Indicates, in principle, the constancy of mental processes. It indicates a rarely changing stable mood. Such facial expressions are associated with calmness, constancy, prudence, reliability, superiority and poise. Sedentary mimic play can, with reduced activity (motor strength and temperament), also give the impression of contemplation and comfort.

• Monotony and rare change of forms. If this behavior is accompanied by slowness and weak tension, then we can conclude not only about mental monotony, but also about weak impulsivity. This may be due to melancholic movement disorders, stiffness, or paralysis. This behavior is typical with extremely monotonous mental states, boredom, sadness, indifference, dullness, emotional poverty, melancholy and depressive stupor (complete stiffness) arising from an exaggerated dull dominant feeling.

Conjugated facial expressions. Most facial processes consist of many separate expressions. Statements like "he opened his mouth and opened his eyes", "cold eyes contradict a laughing mouth" and others indicate that analysis is possible only by observing individual expressions and on the basis of the conclusions obtained in this case.

Eyes as a “mirror of the soul”, “a pledge of fidelity”, “a crater of hatred”, “a symbol of vitality” and “shining stars” are especially often associated with mental states. The eye is indeed a very important organ. A person receives about 80% of sensory impressions through the organs of vision. The eyes are also an important organ of expression. We instinctively immediately determine which eyes are looking at us: soft, tender, piercing, hard, piercing, empty, expressionless, glassy, \u200b\u200bdull, sparkling, joyful, glowing, cold, absent or in love. The look can excite, rivet, delight. A glance can “express more than words,” but it can also “kill”. Eye language is very important for self-awareness in the process of communication.

The mouth also largely determines the facial expression. The mouth is the most mobile part of the face. He is the center of every smile and every pain. If the mouth is distorted during conversation or laughter and the alternation of movements is disharmonious, then this expresses negative aspirations even if all other signals are positive and the face seems friendly. It can be assumed that the smile arose from the initially threatening gesture of "bared teeth." The range of options includes a subtle movement of the corners of the mouth, an open smile, and a disarming smile. In people who smile or laugh a lot, over time, their face generally acquires a smiling, friendly expression.

The head, as the bearer of the most important human organs, is also of particular importance in dynamic body language. Numerous expressive patterns of behavior are manifested, for example, in the fact that for improved perception the head is pushed forward, for defense purposes it is retracted, when evading something - to the side, and when approaching, it leans forward.

The shoulders are mainly used to isolate and refine other signals.

If the upper body is tilted forward, then this indicates closeness, interest, or an attack or planned activity.

If the upper torso is pulled back, this may indicate retreat, lack of interest (or being busy with your thoughts), flight, or lack of any activity towards your partner.

Move forward. Indicates interest in the object in the direction of which we are moving. This interest can be driven positively or negatively, literally or objectively. The exact value can be deduced from additionally supplied signals.

Backward movement. Demonstrate a tendency to recede. Quite often, the withdrawal precedes the flight, and the strength of the stimulus is decisive in relation to whether the withdrawal (withdrawal) is made due to an unpleasant sensation or he (it) goes into flight. If leaving is accompanied by the uttering of any phrases, then in most cases we are dealing with the confirmation of the words that "he seems to deny what he himself says." Body posture language exposes the falsity of speech.

Poses and gestures

The language of facial expressions and gestures has existed long before the emergence of the spoken language. Gestures, facial expressions and movements of a person are accurate indicators of his inner state of mind, thoughts, emotions and desires. Nobody can say something without intonation, facial expressions, gestures. We are constantly in some kind of posture that can be interpreted in some way.

Gestures are expressive movements of the head, hand, or hand that are made for the purpose of communication and that can accompany a thinking or state. Distinguish between pointing, emphasizing (reinforcing), demonstrative and tangential gestures.

Pointing gestures are directed towards objects or people in order to draw attention to them. Underlining gestures are used to reinforce statements. In this case, decisive importance is attached to the position of the hand. Demonstrative gestures explain the state of affairs. With the help of tangential gestures, they want to establish social contact or receive a sign of attention from a partner. They are also used to weaken the meaning of statements.

There are also voluntary and involuntary gestures. Arbitrary gestures are movements of the head, arms, or hands that are made consciously. Such movements, if performed frequently, can turn into involuntary gestures. Involuntary gestures are movements made unconsciously. They are often also referred to as reflex movements. These gestures do not need to be learned. As a rule, they are congenital (defensive reflex) or acquired.

All these types of gestures can accompany, supplement or replace any statement. The gesture accompanying the utterance is, in most cases, emphasizing and clarifying.

Creation and presentation of the image

Visual diagnostics of psychological type

P. Tsypin made an attempt to describe the external characteristics of socionic types. He identified a number of, as it seems to him, stable signs of appearance and behavior for each type. He pays special attention to the look. The author offers only some conclusions that have not been scientifically confirmed in any way. In addition, the studies of N.G. Artemtseva, in some way, even refute the conclusions made. For example, let's say that a logician can look the way socionics suggest, but also a person with a dominant function of "sensing".

Unlike socionics, the external characteristics of types are not described within the framework of the system of psychological types by N.L. Nagibina (Psycosmology). Long-term studies of the author of the typology (Nagibina, 1998-2010) show that among the same type there can be choleric people, and sanguine people, and extroverts, and introverts, and fat, and thin, and tall, and short ... etc. ... This is probably why in the works of Nagibina N.L. and her associates, basically, the psychological characteristics of each type are described in great detail and in detail, their manifestations in the work and fate of representatives of the types, and there are a lot of photographs of characters attributed to a particular psychotype.

Based on the data obtained in many years of research, the authors (Artemtseva, Nagibina) offer the following descriptions of the gaze characteristic of each type:

Type G. The look is calm, kind, conducive to communication

Type GN. The look is calm, attentive to people, a little sad, understanding warm, conducive to acquaintance.

Type N. The look is open, calm, cold and friendly.

Type A. The look is carried away, self-confident, expressing the owner's enthusiasm, sometimes irritated.

AB type. The look is mischievous, cheerful, wandering, defocused, not too interested, attentive to the surrounding reality.

Type B. The look is sensual, self-confident, affable, conducive to acquaintance.

Type C. The look is somewhat arrogant, imperious, attentive, as if boring, sensual, sometimes as if “insane”.

CD type. The look is mockingly aggressive, picky, domineering, playfully sophisticated, often directed, as it were, inward.

Type D. The look is stern, serious, tough, inhospitable, often containing threat and aggression.

Type E. The gaze is smart, reflective, setting a rigid distance, coldly detached, without much interest in the world around him, sometimes picky.

EF type. The look is open, disposing, but still keeping a distance, sometimes detached, impartial, as if indifferent, demonstrating a certain philosophical objectivity.

Type F. A gaze directed somewhere into the distance, attentive, with a squint, ironic, often rustic, but with a slyness.

Of course, the characteristics of the gaze are only of high value in determining the psychotype when combined with other visual impressions from the "object of research."

Examples of types of psycosmology with exercises for training are presented on the page

V.A. Labunskaya Non-verbal behavior. - Publishing House of Rostov University. Rostov-on-Don 1986.

Pease Alan. Sign Language: A Fascinating Guide for Business People. - M., I-Q, 1992.

Drummers V. A., Malkova T. N. Dependence of the accuracy of identification of facial expression on the localization of facial expressions. // Questions of psychology. 1988, No. 5. P.131-140

Bodalev A.A. Formation of the first impression.// Man and Society. M., 1966.

Yu.V. Granskaya Recognition of emotions by facial expression. / Diss. ... Candidate of Psychol .. Sciences. S - Pb, 1998.

Ivanskaya L.N. Psychological features of identification of a person's face from a photograph. Diss. ... Cand. psychol. Sciences, Leningrad, 1981.

Sikorsky I.A. General psychology with physiognomy. Kiev, 1912.

Umar. B. Individual-typological characteristics and characteristics of perception (for example, the perception of other people). S.-Pb, 1998

Bruce V., Green P., Georgeson M.A. Visual perception: Physiology, Psychology and Ecology. Psychology Press. 1997.431r.

Bruce V., Young A. In the eye of the beholder. The science of face perception. Oxford-N.Y.-Tokyo .: Oxford University Press. 2000.280r.

Eibl-Eibesfeldt I. Human ethology. New York: de Gruyter, 1989.

Ekman P. Facial expression // Nonverbal behavior and communication. New York. 1978.

Ellis H.D. Face recall: A Psychological perspective. // Human Learning, 1986. V.5. p. 189-196.

Landis C. The interpretation of facial expression in emotion // In: Recegnition of facial expression. N. Y .: Arnopress. 1975.

McWeeny K.N., Young A.W., Hay D. C. and Ellis A.W. Putting names to face.// British Journal of Psychology? 1987, V. 78, p. 143-151.

Shepherd J. An interactive computer system for retrieving faces. // Aspects of face processing. Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1986. P. 398-409.

Tanaka J.W. and Farah M.J. Parts and wholes in face rec-ognition. // Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1993. V.46A. P.225-245.

Woodworth R.S., Schlosberg H. Experimental Psychology. N.Y .: Holt, 1954.

Young L The naked face. The Essential Guide to Reading Faces. New York. St. Martin's Press. 1994.