Daily life of Ukrainians in the 17th century post. Culture of Ukraine of the XVII century: History of Ukraine

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UKRAANIEIINTSY (self-name), people, the main population of Ukraine (37.4 million people). They also live in Russia (4.36 million people), Kazakhstan (896 thousand people), Moldova (600 thousand people), Belarus (over 290 thousand people), Kyrgyzstan (109 thousand people), Uzbekistan (153 thousand people). . person) and other states on the territory of the former USSR. The total number is 46 million people, including in Poland (350 thousand people), Canada (550 thousand people), the USA (535 thousand people), Argentina (120 thousand people) and other countries. They speak Ukrainian of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family. The following dialects are distinguished: northern (left-bank-Polissya, right-bank-Polissya, Volyn-Polissya dialects), southwestern (Volyn-Podolsk, Galician-Bukovinian, Carpathian, Dniester dialects) and southeastern (Dnieper and eastern Poltava dialects). Writing from the 14th century based on the Cyrillic alphabet. Russian is also widespread (mainly in the South and the Left Bank, especially among the townspeople), and in Western Ukraine among the elderly - Polish. Believers Ukrainians are mostly Orthodox, belonging to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), to a lesser extent to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church - the Kyiv Patriarchate and the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church. There are also Catholics in Western Ukraine. 90% of them are Catholics of the Byzantine rite (Greek Catholics, Uniates), the rest are Catholics of the Latin rite. Protestantism is also known in the form of Pentecostalism, Baptism, Adventism, etc.

Ukrainians, along with closely related Russians and Belarusians, belong to the Eastern Slavs. The Ukrainians include the Carpathian (Boyko, Hutsuls, Lemkos) and Polissya (Litvin, Polishchuk) ethnographic groups. The formation of the Ukrainian nationality (origin and formation) took place in the 12-15 centuries on the basis of the southwestern part of the East Slavic population, which was previously part of the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus (9-12 centuries). During the period of political fragmentation due to the existing local peculiarities of language, culture and life (in the 12th century the toponym "Ukraine" also appeared), the prerequisites were created for the formation of three East Slavic peoples on the basis of the Old Russian nationality - Ukrainian, Russian and Belarusian. The main historical center of the formation of the Ukrainian people was the Middle Dnieper region - Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernigov region. A significant integrating role was played by Kiev, which rose from the ruins after the defeat by the Golden Horde invaders in 1240, where the most important shrine of Orthodoxy, the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, was located. Other southwestern East Slavic lands gravitated towards this center - Sivershina, Volyn, Podolia, Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina and Transcarpathia. Beginning in the 13th century, the Ukrainians underwent Hungarian, Lithuanian, Polish and Moldovan conquests. From the end of the 15th century, the raids of the Tatar khans who established themselves in the Northern Black Sea region began, accompanied by the mass captivity and theft of the Ukrainians. In the 16-17 centuries, in the course of the struggle against foreign conquerors, the Ukrainian nation was significantly consolidated. The most important role in this was played by the emergence of the Cossacks (15th century), which created a state (16th century) with a peculiar republican system - the Zaporozhye Sich, which became a political stronghold of the Ukrainians. In the 16th century, the book Ukrainian (the so-called Old Ukrainian) language was formed. On the basis of the Middle Dnieper dialects at the turn of the 18-19th centuries, the modern Ukrainian (New Ukrainian) literary language was formed.

The defining moments of the ethnic history of Ukrainians in the 17th century were the further development of handicrafts and trade, in particular, in cities that enjoyed Magdeburg law, as well as the creation, as a result of the liberation war under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnytsky, Ukrainian state - the Hetmanate and its entry (1654) as autonomous Russia. This created the preconditions for the further unification of all Ukrainian lands. In the 17th century, significant groups of Ukrainians moved from the Right Bank, which was part of Poland, as well as from the Dnieper region to the east and southeast, the development of empty steppe lands by them and the formation of the so-called Slobozhanshchina. In the 90s of the 18th century, the Right Bank Ukraine and the southern, and in the first half of the 19th century - the Danubian Ukrainian lands became part of Russia.

The name "Ukraine", used in the 12-13th centuries to designate the southern and southwestern parts of the Old Russian lands, by the 17-18th century in the meaning of "land", i.e. the country was fixed in official documents, became widespread and served as the basis for the ethnonym "Ukrainians". Along with the ethnonyms originally used in relation to their southeastern group - "Ukrainians", "Cossacks", "Cossack people", "Ruski". In the 16th - early 18th century, in the official documents of Russia, the Ukrainians of the Middle Dnieper and Slobozhanshchina were often called "Cherkasy", later, in pre-revolutionary times - "Little Russians", "Little Russians" or "South Russians".

Features of the historical development of various territories of Ukraine, their geographical differences led to the emergence of historical and ethnographic regions of Ukrainians - Polesie, Central Dnieper, South, Podolia, Carpathians, Slobozhanshchina. Ukrainians have created a vibrant and distinctive national culture.

The main traditional branch of Ukrainian agriculture is arable farming with a predominance of three-field (along with it, slash-and-burn and shifting was preserved in the Carpathians and Polesie back in the 19th century). Rye, wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat, oats, hemp, flax were cultivated; from the end of the 17th century - corn, tobacco, from the 2nd half of the 18th century - sunflower, potatoes; from garden crops - cabbage, cucumbers, beets, turnips, onions, etc., watermelons and melons (in the steppe regions), from the beginning of the 19th century - tomatoes and peppers. Home gardening (apple, pear, cherry, plum, raspberry, currant, gooseberry, to a lesser extent apricots, cherries, grapes) has long been characteristic of Ukrainians.

The complex of traditional agricultural implements consisted of a wooden plow with iron parts with a front end, a plow (single-toothed and multi-toothed), a hoe and a spade of various shapes, a harrow, mainly a frame harrow, etc. non-front (one-horse, Chernihiv-Seversky version) and on wheels (Lithuanian, or Polissya). The set of harvesting tools consisted of a sickle, scythe, rake and pitchfork. They threshed with a flail, in the south - also with a roller and horses, occasionally with a threshing board of dikans, on open currents in the field, in Polesie - in a threshing floor and a clod; in the northern regions, bread was dried in barns. Grain was processed in water and boat mills (installed on boats or rafts), as well as on windmills and so-called treadmills.

The Ukrainians bred cattle, mainly gray steppe and other breeds, sheep, horses, pigs, and poultry. Pasture grazing prevailed, and in the Carpathians seasonal mountain-distant pasture forms of animal grazing. Beekeeping and fishing played an auxiliary role in the economy. The figure of the chumak was colorful - a carrier of goods over long distances, especially salt and fish on large carts of mazhars drawn by oxen. A significant place in the economy was occupied by a variety of trades and crafts - weaving, potash, gut (glass production), pottery, cloth, woodworking, tanning, etc.

Traditional rural settlements - villages, settlements, farmsteads of street, radial, scattered and other layouts. The dwelling of the pre-revolutionary peasantry - huts (huts), adobe or log cabins, whitewashed inside and out, were two-three-chambered (like a hut - a canopy - a hut or a hut - a canopy - a comor), and in poor peasant farms - single-chamber, with an adobe floor, four-pitched straw, as well as from a reed or shingle roof. In Polesie and in a number of regions of Eastern Galicia, the dwelling remained until the beginning of the 20th century as chicken or semi-chicken. Given the presence of local features of the dwelling in various historical and ethnographic regions, the interior was quite the same type. At the entrance to the hut, to the right or to the left, there was a stove in the corner, with its mouth turned towards the long side of the house. Diagonally from it in another corner, the front one, decorated with embroidered towels and flowers, there were icons hanging, there was a table (sometimes the poor have a hidden chest), on which lay bread and salt, covered with a tablecloth. Along the walls from the table were lavas for the seat. Along the back of the stove, there was a sleeping platform (saws), and a hanger (victim) hung above it. On the wall or in the corner at the entrance there was a "mysnyk" for dishes. The wall opposite to the entrance, as well as the stove, were often painted with flowers, especially if there was a girl in the family. The peasant yard included, depending on the prosperity of the owner, one or several outbuildings: a khliv, a podvit, a komoru, in the south - enclosures for cattle, etc. Ukrainians also lived in numerous cities and towns. The dwellings of the poor townspeople differed little from the rural huts. Wealthy people lived in houses, often brick or stone, from several rooms (hall, kitchen, bedchamber, etc.), with a porch or veranda, often painted outside.

The folk costume was varied and colorful. Women's clothing consisted of an embroidered shirt (shirts - tunic-like, polikovy or on a yoke) and unstitched clothes: jersey, spare tires, plakhta (from the 19th century a sewn skirt - speednitsa); in cool weather they wore sleeveless jackets (kersets, kiptari, etc.). The girls braided their hair in braids, laying them around their heads and decorating them with ribbons, flowers, or putting a wreath of paper flowers and colorful ribbons on their heads. Women wore various bonnets (ochipka), towel-like hats (namitka, obrus), and later, headscarves. A man's suit consisted of a shirt (with a narrow stand-up, often embroidered collar with a drawstring) tucked into wide or narrow trousers, sleeveless jackets and belts. In summer, straw flews served as a headdress, at other times - felt or astrakhan, often the so-called smushkov (from smushki), cylinder-like hats. The most common footwear was rawhide postols, and in Polesie - lychak (bast shoes), among the wealthy - boots. In the autumn-winter period, both men and women wore a retinue and an opanchu - long-length clothes of the same type as the Russian caftan, made of homespun white, gray or black cloth. The women's retinue was fitted. In rainy weather, they wore a retinue with a hood (kobenyak), in winter - long sheepskin sheepskin coats (jackets), covered with cloth by wealthy peasants. Rich embroidery, applique, etc. are characteristic.

Food varied greatly among different segments of the population. The food was based on vegetable and flour foods (borscht, dumplings, various yushki), cereals (especially millet and buckwheat); dumplings, pampushki with garlic, lemishka, noodles, jelly, etc. Fish, including salted fish, occupied a significant place in food. Meat food was available to the peasantry only on holidays. The most popular were pork and lard. From flour with the addition of poppy and honey, numerous poppy seeds, cakes, knyshi, bagels were baked. Such drinks as uzvar, varenukha, sirivets, various liqueurs and vodka, including the popular vodka with pepper, were widespread. As ceremonial dishes, the most common were cereals - kutia and kolyvo with honey.

In the public life of the Ukrainian village until the end of the 19th century, remnants of patriarchal relations were preserved, a significant place was occupied by the neighboring community - the community. Many traditional collective forms of labor (cleanup, supryaga) and rest were characteristic ("community workers" - unions of unmarried guys; parties and supplements, New Year's carols and generosity, etc.). The dominant form of the Ukrainian family was small, with the expressed power of its head - husband and father, although up to the beginning of the 20th century, especially in Polesie and the Carpathians, the remains of a large patriarchal family remained. Family rituals were varied, maternity, especially wedding, with wedding rites, a section of a loaf, accompanied by songs and dances. The folk art of Ukrainians is rich and varied: visual (artistic painting of a dwelling, embroidery with its traditional types - understated, zavolikannya and flooring, etc.), song-musical, choreographic, verbal folklore, including colorful specific thoughts and historical songs composed by kobzars and lyre players. Scientific and technological progress and urbanization, intensive mobility of the population led to the erasure of most of the features of individual ethnographic regions and groups of Ukrainians. The traditional life of the village turned out to be destroyed. The devastating consequences of forced collectivization for the village were aggravated by the severe famine of 1932-33, the Stalinist repressions, as a result of which the Ukrainians lost over 5 million people.

A difficult test for the Ukrainians was the attack in 1941 by Nazi Germany. Many Ukrainian cities, villages and entire districts were destroyed and burned, as a result of military losses the number of Ukrainians decreased. The difficult social and legal conditions of life in many rural settlements led to the outflow of the rural population to the cities, the liquidation of many villages. In the post-war period, some negative trends in demographic development appeared; the natural growth of the population has stopped. The focus on the priority development in the culture of the international to the detriment of the national has led to a reduction in the sphere of use of the Ukrainian language. At the same time, in the 1960s and 1980s, there was a rapid growth of the scientific, technical and humanitarian intelligentsia, professional culture and science. In 1991, Ukraine became an independent state, the process of expanding the sphere of using the Ukrainian language in public life began (it was recognized as the state language by the Constitution adopted in June 1996), contacts with the Ukrainian diaspora intensified, part of the Ukrainians from Russia, Kazakhstan and other states of the former USSR moved to Ukraine. Mainly for political reasons, contradictions appeared between the two Orthodox churches, as well as between the Ukrainians of the western regions and the rest of Ukraine.

V.F. Gorlenko

According to the 2002 census, the number of Ukrainians living in Russia is 2 million 943 thousand people.

1. List the stages of European medieval history, name their chronological framework. What's new in the life of society appeared in each of them?
2. Name the largest medieval states in Asia, America and Africa. What were the features of the Middle Ages in these countries?
3. List the empires of the Middle Ages. Which ones survived by the end of the 15th century?
4. What was the contribution of the Arab Islamic civilization to the history and culture of the medieval world?
5. What is estate society? What were the position and responsibilities of each class in medieval society?
6.What do you think was the division or class division that united the medieval society?
7. What associations were created by people of the same class or occupation in medieval Europe? Why did people need such associations?
8. In what areas of life during the Middle Ages, cities played a particularly important role? Why?
9. What was the influence of the church on the life of a medieval person?
Did the position of the Catholic Church in Europe change during the Middle Ages?
10. In your opinion, what new teachings, events, people of the late Middle Ages brought the New Time closer?
11. Many scientists call the modern world the direct heir of the Middle Ages. What facts can prove this point of view?

Write down the concepts: 1. A community of people who are united by self-name, language of communication, lifestyle, customs. 2. One of the religions of the East,

Islam.

3. The stage of development of society, following the primitive system.

4. Religion, the founder of which was<<просветлённый>> Indian prince.

5. A large community of people with their own traditions and characteristics in the economy, culture, etc.

6. Closed groups of Indian society, uniting people by origin and occupation.

7. A religion that recognizes the gods Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and thousands of others.

8. Dependent territory under the rule of the metropolis.

Help solve

Option 1

A) the reunification of Ukraine with Russia;

B) the campaign of False Dmitry to Moscow;

C) the decree on the "class years", the beginning of the search for the peasants.

A) S. Zholkevsky;

B) Sigismund III;

C) False Dmitry I.

A) the policy of Catholicism pursued by False Dmitry I;

B) the need to correct religious books;

C) enslavement of the peasants.

4. Indicate the name of the explorer who discovered in 1648 the strait separating Asia from America:

A) Semyon Dezhnev;

B) Erofey Khabarov;

C) Simon Ushakov.

5. An indefinite search for fugitive peasants would be legalized:

A) in 1592;

B) in 1649;

C) in 1653

6. The first ironworks in Russia was built during the reign of:

A) Vasily Shuisky;

B) Mikhail Fedorovich;

D) Alexei Mikhailovich.

7. Mark the line that characterizes the economic development of Russia in the 17th century:

A) complete domination of natural economy;

B) the creation of manufactories;

C) the widespread use of the slash-and-burn farming system.

8. In 1687 and 1689. Russian troops took part in two campaigns against the Crimean Khanate under the leadership of:

A) D. Pozharsky;

B) B. Khmelnitsky;

C) V. Golitsyn.

9. A vivid illustration of the Naryshkin baroque is the church:

A) Protection in Fili in Moscow;

B) the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl;

C) Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki in Moscow.

10. Who are we talking about? The former servant of Prince Telyatevsky fled to the Don and became a free man. In one of the Cossack campaigns he was captured by the Turks, fled to Italy, lived in Venice. In 1606 he returned to Russia. He called himself the commander of "the miraculously escaped Tsarevich Dmitry." He won victories over government troops several times. He was defeated during the siege of Moscow in 1606. In 1607, near Tula, he was forced to surrender to government troops. In 1608 he was killed.

11. Give a definition - a manufactory, black-mowed peasants, cattle.

Option 2

1. Arrange in chronological order:

A) Cathedral Code;

B) Copper riot in Moscow;

C) Smolensk war.

2. Indicate the name of the patriarch who initiated the church reform:

A) Nikon;

B) Habakkuk;

C) Filaret.

3. Determine the reason for the church schism:

A) changing part of the dogmas and the order of worship;

B) the creation of religious sects;

C) termination of the convocation of Zemsky Sobor.

4. In 1654-1667. Russia fought with:

A) Sweden;

B) Poland;

C) Turkey.

5. The uprising caused by the issue of copper money and, as a result, by the rise in dearness, took place:

A) in 1662;

B) in 1648;

C) in 1668

6. Note the reason why many people joined the army of Stepan Razin:

A) he paid money;

B) he distributed land;

C) he declared each participant in the performance a free person.

7. Indicate the outstanding master of painting in the 17th century, the author of the work "Savior Not Made by Hands":

A) Simeon Polotsky;

B) Simon Ushakov;

C) Andrey Rublev.

8. Yamskaya order was responsible for:

A) fast mail delivery;

B) tax collection;

C) the royal treasury.

9. In the 17th century, the church forbade younger girls to marry:

10. Who are we talking about? Hetman, who led the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against Poland.

11. Give a definition - bareboat, proprietor peasants, booby.

Option 3

1. Arrange in chronological order:

A) the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich;

B) the uprising led by Stepan Razin;

C) urban uprisings in Russia.

2. Indicate the feature that characterizes the concept of "manufacture":

A) small-scale manual production;

B) the master is the owner, the journeyman and the apprentices are the workers;

C) large-scale machine production.

3. Indicate the name of the opponent of the church reform, the head of the Old Believers:

A) Nikon;

B) Habakkuk;

C) Macarius.

4. The reason for the uprising in 1648 was:

A) an attempt to introduce a new tax on salt;

B) the issue of copper money;

C) the introduction of an unlimited search for fugitive peasants.

5. Specify the chronological framework of the uprising led by Stepan Razin:

B) 1654 - 1667;

B) 1667 - 1671.

6. The main entertainment of the king was:

B) falconry or hound hunting;

C) fist fights.

7. The expansion of the territory of the Russian state due to the annexation of the Zaporizhzhya Sich occurs:

A) at the end of the 16th century;

B) in the first half of the 17th century;

C) in the second half of the 17th century.

8. Pathfinder, by name and patronymic of which the village and the railway station are named, and by the last name - the city:

A) Erofey Pavlovich Khabarov;

B) Stepan Timofeevich Razin;

C) Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev.

9. In the 17th century, a new literary genre appeared:

A) an epic;

B) "living";

C) satirical story.

10. Who are we talking about. Born into a prosperous Cossack family in the village of Zimoveyskaya on the Don. He possessed not only great physical strength, but also an extraordinary mind and willpower. The extraordinary qualities of a military leader manifested itself in him during campaigns against the Crimean Tatars and Turks. He gained diplomatic experience during negotiations with the Kalmyks, and then with the Persians.

11. Give a definition - an industrialist, serfdom, hetman.

The Ukrainian state is located in Eastern Europe. This country borders on Belarus, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Moldova and Russia. It has access to the Black and Azov Seas.

In ancient times, the present-day Ukrainians were called Little Russians and Rusyns. The Ukrainian nationality originates from the Eastern Slavs. Ukrainians live mainly in their own territories. But in some countries you can still find representatives of this ethnic group: In Russia, the USA, Canada and other states.

Poleshuk, Boyki, Hutsuls, Lemkos - all these ethnographic groups belong to the Ukrainian people.

Peoples inhabiting Ukraine

Today, the main population of Ukraine is the Ukrainians themselves and the Russians. Also, Belarusians, Moldovans, Tatars, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Romanians and Poles live in the Ukrainian territories.

In addition, some Ukrainians live in foreign territories: Canada, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Romania, Brazil, Argentina and Australia.

The Ukrainian people are also made up of foreign Rusyns - Slovaks, Serbs, Americans and Canadians. There are also many Hutsuls living in Ukraine.

For a long time, modern Ukraine included Slavic-speaking and Iranian-speaking peoples. Gradually, the Iranians were evicted by the Turks. The Germans also lived here for some time. But the Greeks, Armenians and Jews lived the longest on the Ukrainian lands.

In Soviet times, the composition of the population of Ukraine changed somewhat - Jews, Poles, Germans, Tatars began to leave the territory of Ukraine, and at the same time the Russian people began to move there.

The ethnic structure of Ukraine has changed under the influence of both external and internal factors - religion, differences in living standards, historical events and foreign policy.

Culture and life of Ukraine

Ukrainian life is full of colorfulness and religiosity. Tourists have always admired the beauty of the nature of these places and the character of the people.

The main feature of the Ukrainian people is their love for work and agriculture. This trait appeared in ancient times, because the Ukrainian people have always depended on the agricultural year.

What is a tradition or custom in many countries is common and everyday for Ukrainians. For example, folk songs. People just need to entertain themselves by working in the fields.

If we talk about national dress, then a man's outfit cannot be compared in brightness and beauty with a woman's. A beautiful shirt with embroidery is belted with a belt-hem. A velvet or silk corset and an embroidered apron are worn over this. The clothes are decorated with multi-colored ribbons, which add a special color to the outfit. The headdress has a special meaning - unmarried women wore a flower wreath, married women - a high ochip covering their hair.

A man's suit looks much simpler than a woman's: a long shirt, harem pants, a sleeveless jacket and a long belt.

Family in Ukraine is of great importance. Therefore, a Ukrainian follows all the rules of marriage and family life.

Traditions and customs in Ukraine

Ukrainians have always honored and respected the traditions of their ancestors. And even after the adoption of Christianity, they were able to connect their past with the present.

Speaking of religious traditions, it is worth mentioning Christmas, Shrovetide, Easter, Trinity and Ivan Kupala.

Christmas in Ukraine begins with the celebration of Holy Eve on January 6. On this day, people prepare kutya and uzvar. And on Christmas, every family sets a festive table full of meat dishes.

One of the Christmas customs is carols. Carolers go home and collect gifts and gifts. They distribute roles among themselves - birch, patchwork, treasurer, bread-monger, star-star, dancer, etc.

Shrovetide is still a pre-Christian holiday. It celebrates the end of winter and the onset of warm days. Today this holiday is held a week before Lent. As a rule, these days people cook pancakes with various fillings, treat each other by burning a scarecrow of Winter.

The Easter custom is to paint chicken eggs and bake cakes. People greet each other with the words: "Christ is Risen!", And in response they hear: "Indeed he is risen!"

The feast of the Trinity is celebrated for 3 days. Green Sunday is the day when girls perform divination rites. It is believed that predictions come true on this day. Checkered Monday is the day of consecration of fields from fires, hail and crop failure. The third day is Bogodukhov's day. On this day, girls play various games.

The holiday of Ivan Kupala is famous for its mysticism. They say that on this day you can hear the conversations of evil spirits. And if you swim in the spring or drink the dew, then all the negative is washed off the person.

Russia: the emergence of a great power

At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Russia has established itself as a great power. During the 18th century alone, its population increased from about 15.6 million to 37.3 million. This was more than in France and England combined. After the creation of metallurgical enterprises in the Urals in the 18th century, Russia smelted more iron and iron than England.

Russia and Ukraine in the 17th century

The most significant changes in the position of Russia and the nature of its development took place during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov (reigned 1645-1676).

During these years, Russia waged almost continuous wars with its traditional opponents - the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and the Crimean Khanate.

In 1648, a war broke out between Poland and the Zaporozhye Cossack army. In 1649, the Cossacks turned to Russia for help. She was not yet ready to fight, but promised to support the Cossacks with money, weapons and volunteers.

The Zaporozhye army was a unique state formation that arose in the 16th century on the vast territory of the middle and lower Dnieper region. These lands, bordering the Crimean Khanate from the south and constantly being raided by it, from the north - with Russia

They were considered to belong to Poland, but she had no real power over them. For decades peasants from Russian, Polish and Lithuanian lands settled here, fleeing the tyranny of the landowners. They mingled with the local population, acquired an economy, repulsed the Crimean Tatars, and themselves raided the Crimea, and sometimes even Polish lands. Ukrainian Cossacks, who lived in the middle reaches of the Dnieper, received money for their service from the Polish crown. The hetman, colonels, and esauls chosen by them were confirmed in Warsaw. The Cossacks who lived in the lower reaches of the Dnieper - “beyond the rapids” (hence Zaporozhye), were formally subjects of the Polish crown, but considered themselves independent from it. Their support was a fortified settlement - the Zaporozhye Sich.

Poland's attempts to subjugate all the Cossacks to its power became the cause of the war, which continued with varying success until 1654. In 1653, the hetman of the Zaporizhzhya army Bohdan Khmelnitsky (1595 - 1657) officially turned to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine "under the high royal hand." The Zemsky Sobor in 1654 made a decision on the entry of Ukraine into Russia. The agreement signed and approved by the All-Ukrainian Rada in Pereyaslavl provided for the preservation of broad rights for the Ukrainian Cossacks, in particular, the election of all officials.

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia was the cause of the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667. It went unsuccessfully for Poland, which was also attacked by Sweden. Under these conditions, Russia signed an armistice with Poland in 1656 and opposed Sweden, which it saw as a more dangerous enemy.

Meanwhile, the situation in Ukraine escalated. B. Khmelnitsky's successor, Getman I. Vyhovsky, in 1658 stopped the agreement with Russia and entered into an alliance with Poland and Crimea, they jointly began military operations against Russia. In a difficult situation for itself, the Russian government was forced to urgently conclude peace with Sweden at the cost of returning all the conquered territories to Sweden. The problem of access to the Baltic Sea remained unresolved again.

The position of Russia, whose army suffered heavy losses, worsened the split of Ukraine into the Right Bank and the Left Bank. In 1667 Russia signed a truce with Poland. Right-bank Ukraine remained under her rule.

The war in the south did not end there. In 1672 the armies of Turkey and the Krymsk Khanate invaded the Ukraine. The outbreak of war between Turkey and Russia went on with varying success. Only in 1681 a peace treaty was signed, according to which Kiev and Left-Bank Ukraine remained with Russia.