Russian and Ukrainian peoples 17th century post. Everyday life of the peoples of Ukraine, the Volga region, Siberia and the North Caucasus

The medieval culture of Ukraine was quite specific. In many ways, we can say that medieval Ukrainian culture is a vivid example of a “borderline” culture: here West and East, civilization and savagery, striving forward and obscurantist inertia of views, rabid religiosity and secular aspiration of ideas are fancifully mixed. Such a motley combination, which characterized the culture of Ukraine in the 17th century, was formed due to a number of circumstances.

• By the XIV century, the Ukrainian lands were finally freed from the Tatar-Mongol yoke, that is, much earlier than the "Great Russian" territories. True, the indigenous inhabitants of the former Kievan Rus should not rejoice strongly: the country was plundered, the productive forces, namely, the rich and educated princes and boyars, were largely destroyed. In addition, a holy place is never empty, and the liberated territory was occupied by representatives of more developed neighboring countries - Poland, Lithuania, Hungary. The leading role, apparently, was played by the Lithuanians, who in the ethnographic and cultural sense were a more “young” people than the Eastern Slavs. (who in the lands of Ukraine preferred to call themselves Russians); Therefore, the Lithuanians preferred “not to introduce new things, not to destroy the old days,” that is, they did not abolish the way of life habitual to Russians and Old Russian legislation, but, on the contrary, actively perceived the foundations of Slavic culture and even adopted Orthodoxy. But under the influence of their western neighbors, the Lithuanians embraced European enlightenment, and gradually the economic, political and cultural life of Ukraine was largely reorganized in a European way.
• The development of the national liberation movement, which is predominantly of a peasant-Cossack character. The Ukrainian lower strata of the population, who belonged to the East Slavic people, felt subdued. According to the peasants, the Lithuanians and Poles, as well as the pollinated “Russian” elite, have appropriated the funds belonging to the Orthodox people and are using them unjustly, at least not in the interests of the “autochthonous” population. Most of the peasants and Cossacks were illiterate, dark and superstitious people, which left an imprint on the cultural life of Ukraine.
• Some isolation of the Ukrainian lands from the centers of European cultural life. The creative, philosophical and technological conquests of European civilization came to Ukraine with a certain delay. In general, for this entire region of Eastern Europe, there is a strict gradation in terms of the level of civilization. In the Belarusian lands in the 16th century, the European Renaissance dominated with might and main, Ukraine at the same time mastered for the most part the culture of the late Middle Ages, and a gloomy and hopeless early Middle Ages reigned in Russia, and in some areas almost a primitive communal system. Because of this, a kind of cultural filtration also took place: European culture penetrated into Ukraine and Belarus in a "polonized" form, and then, in the 17th century, it penetrated into the Moscow state in a Ukrainianized form: Simeon Polotsky, Pamvo Berynda and many others Moscow "scientists" came to Moscow from Ukraine.

Polemic culture of Ukraine XIV - XVII centuries

Due to the circumstances, the medieval culture of Ukraine was strongly polemic. Outstanding monuments of Ukrainian literature are mostly represented by polemical compositions, which defended the superiority of the Orthodox faith over the Catholic (or vice versa), cursed or, on the contrary, supported the Uniates who concluded the so-called Brest Union.

The polemic, however, did not develop into a general cultural confrontation: for example, one of the most educated Ukrainians, Prince Ostrozhsky, patronized the activities of Orthodox writers and artisans, including the printer and gunsmith Ivan Fedorov, who had escaped from the wild Tatar Moscow. Orthodox artists tried to combine Byzantine icon painting canons with the achievements of European fine art, and also mastered civil painting itself.

Old Ukrainian churches of the Old Russian model and freshly built churches in the Renaissance and Baroque styles passed either to the Orthodox, then to the Catholics, then to the Uniates. Behind this polemical Ukrainian culture was a bitter political struggle between the indigenous Ukrainian population and the Europeans, who were perceived as invaders.

Scholasticism was in the same ranks with the controversy. The "fraternal schools" founded by Peter Mogila, one of which had grown into the Kiev-Mohyla Academy by the second half of the 17th century, concentrated their activities in scholastic disputes, in which they were largely mired.

The real goal of scholastic disputes is the desire to prevent "spiritual sabotage": scrupulously examining the doctrine, human rights in accordance with the "Holy Scriptures", educated Orthodox priests tried, overcoming primitive savagery, to determine for believers the maximum "civilizational dose" that would allow the person who accepted it still called Orthodox.

Culture of Ukraine XVII - XVIII centuries

Ukrainian culture in these centuries has undergone mutual influence with the culture of Moscow. On the one hand, scientists, writers, architects and artists willingly came to the Moscow state and were even specially invited by Alexei Mikhailovich, again with the same goal: to perceive European civilization as if “bypassing” Catholic and Protestant missionaries.

On the other hand, having become part of the Russian state, Ukraine also adopted the subsequent Russian culture, which Peter reshaped in a Western way. And the so-called "Ukrainian baroque", culturally representing nothing more than the early Renaissance, in the 18th century sharply turned into the present baroque. This was apparently initiated by Mazepa, who in his letter to Peter asked to send him the architect Osip Startsev from Moscow.

Video: History of Ukrainian culture

Map 2. Ukraine between Poland and Russia

Poland, after the suppression of the Cossack uprisings of 1637 and 1638. received a ten-year period of calm. The Poles, it would seem, completely subjugated the Ukrainian Cossacks.

Poland flourished. Ukrainian lands, especially those on the left bank of the Dnieper, Seversk land and Poltava, where the land holdings of Polish and loyal to Poland Ukrainian magnates were rapidly expanding, became the grain bins of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Access to the Baltic made it possible to expand trade in Ukrainian wheat and livestock, as well as Belarusian timber, tar and potash. This led to the growth of cities such as Warsaw, Vilno, Lvov, Kamenets and Kiev. This decade has often been referred to as the era of the "golden world". Prosperity, however, was built on shaky foundations, as Polish rule over the Ukrainian people faced all kinds of conflicts and contradictions - political, national, economic, social and religious.

Analyzing Polish policy in relation to Ukraine and the attitude of Ukrainians to Polish rule, one should first of all consider the differences in the status of different strata of Ukrainian society. By 1640, there were almost no Ukrainian magnates left, since practically all Ukrainian aristocratic families were converted to the Roman Catholic faith. An outstanding champion of Greek-Orthodoxy in Western Russia, Prince Konstantin Konstantinovich Ostrozhsky died in 1608. His descendants became Catholics. Prince Jeremiah Vishnevetsky converted to Catholicism in 1632. Among the few Greek Orthodox nobles who had at least some political weight, Adam Kisel is best known. But, although he was Russian. Kisel felt like a Pole politically.

An extremely large number of representatives of the small Ukrainian nobility (gentry) remained Greek Orthodox in faith, but Russian in spirit, although they were loyal to the Polish king and were ready to serve Poland with faith and truth. In addition, in Ukraine there were a large number of small landowners who did not have the official status of the gentry, but who differed little from it economically and socially. It was from these two groups that the Polish government usually recruited officers and privates to the number of registered (registered) Cossacks.

The Zaporozhye Cossacks, organized around their Sich, sometimes accepted representatives of the Russian-Ukrainian nobility into their ranks, the majority were ordinary people, occasionally townspeople, but for the most part - peasants who fled from the land of the magnates.

Thus, the Cossacks were a link between the nobility and the townspeople, and between the nobility and the peasants. Most of the Ukrainian people at that time were peasants, whose position in both Ukraine and Belarus was tantamount to slavery.

As for religion, the compromise of 1632. greatly strengthened the status of the Greek Orthodox Church in Western Russia. Although the Orthodox in fact did not receive all the rights and privileges stipulated in the conditions that were promised to them, the Russian clergy were satisfied with their position. The petty clergy, However, whose social level was closer to the peasantry, was harassed and insulted by the Polish magnates and officials, and it was quite possible to expect that they would side with the Cossacks and peasants in any future unrest.

Indeed, the situation is ripe for such unrest in Ukraine. Dissatisfaction grew both among the peasants and among the Cossacks. A look at the circumstances of the peasants' life reveals a strange, as it may seem at first glance, situation: corvee was easier on the recently conquered border lands than in the northern regions of Ukraine and Belarus. Then why did these peasants from the left bank and the border areas of the right bank of the Dnieper more inclined towards rebellion than the rest, whose situation was much more difficult? The reasons were mainly purely psychological. The new settlers in most cases were more energetic and proactive people than those who lived there permanently. In addition, the very environment in the border lands was different due to the presence of free people - the Cossacks. Any attempt on the part of the owners of the estates to burden their peasants caused more outrage among the new settlers than in those areas where dependence existed for a long time. Moreover, in the new lands, on the border of the steppe zone, it was comparatively easier for an offended peasant to run away from his master and join the Cossacks "beyond the [Dnieper] rapids." Peasants from the left bank could even run to the Don Cossacks.

After the suppression of the 1638 uprising, several units of Polish soldiers were stationed in the Ukrainian lands in order to be a precaution against possible disturbances. The behavior of these soldiers irritated the population as much as the oppression of the masters. Always in need of money due to their wasteful lifestyles, landowners often pledged sources of income from their lands and various structures on their lands, such as water mills, distilleries, taverns and river ferries, to Jews, who traditionally provided financial support in Poland and Lithuania. support of kings and nobles and have long been necessary because of their business enterprise. As a result, for many Ukrainian peasants, Jews began to be identified with the despotic Polish regime. When the revolutionary explosion broke out, the Jews found themselves between two opposing forces (Ukrainians and Poles), their fate turned out to be tragic.

Dissatisfied with the fact that only the peasants were under their rule, the magnates after 1638 tried to convert the Cossacks (vyshchiks) “excluded from the register” into peasants. The Registered Cossacks themselves were subject to strict discipline and were subject to harassment from both the Polish and their own officers (foremen).

Despite all this, the foundation of Polish rule seemed solid enough. However, latent popular discontent manifested itself in a number of peasant riots in both Western and Eastern Ukraine in 1639 and in subsequent years. These were not yet symptoms of deep indignation in Ukraine. Such riots did not succeed in developing into general unrest only because of the lack of interaction between peasants in different localities, as well as between Cossacks and peasants.

In 1646 the king of Poland gave the Cossacks a reason for general unrest, albeit unintentionally. Vladislav IV was an ambitious man and was annoyed by the rule of the Diet. He was looking for a suitable opportunity to elevate his royal authority and raise respect for the crown.

Vladislav's fondly cherished project was the war against Turkey. In these plans, he was supported by Chancellor Jerzy Ossolinski, appointed in 1643. In 1645, under pressure from the Turks, Venice asked for help from some European countries, including Poland. Without informing the Diet about his plans, Vladislav agreed to support Venice in the war against the Turks, but demanded substantial subsidies. He intended to use this money to strengthen the Polish regular army and mobilize the Cossacks. In his military plans, he intended first to attack the vassals of the Turkish Sultan - the Crimean Tatars.

Vladislav had a high opinion of the Cossacks as a military force. They supported him even when he, being the crown prince, waged a war against Moscow in 1617-1618. and once again in the capture of Smolensk in 1632-1634. In April 1646, at the invitation of the king, four delegates from the elders of the registered Cossacks: three esauls - Ivan Barabash, Ilya Karaimovich and Ivan Nesterenko Booth - and the Chigirin centurion Bogdan Khmelnitsky - arrived in Warsaw and were received in top secret by the king and chancellor of Ossolinsky. Since no protocols of their meeting have survived, the exact content of these negotiations is unknown, however, from the available sources, it can be assumed that Vladislav promised to increase the number of registered Cossacks from one thousand to a much larger figure (twelve, or maybe even twenty thousand). It was argued that the king handed Barabash a decree of similar content, certified by his own seal (and not the seal of the state).

The secret plans of Vladislav and Ossolinsky soon became known to the magnates and caused great indignation. At a meeting in 1646, the Sejm banned any increase in the composition of the regular Polish army and began to threaten Ossolinsky with dismissal. Vladislav was forced to abandon this part of his project.

At the next meeting (1647), the Diet turned its attention to Vladislav's interest in the Cossacks and decided to put an end to his military preparations once and for all. They specially voted that the number of registered Cossacks could not be increased without the approval of the Sejm. Because of these decisions, the senior officers of the registered Cossacks - Barabash and Karaimovich - abandoned attempts to increase the Cossack register to date and decided to keep the whole matter secret. However, it turned out to be impossible for them to stop the spread of rumors and gossip among ordinary Cossacks, especially because their companion in the delegation to Vladislav, centurion Bohdan Khmelnitsky, did not want to miss an opportunity to strengthen the Cossack army.

People: russians

Settlement area: the middle zone of Russia, mainly, also the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, the Far East, Ukraine, Belarus and all regions of Russia

Sedentary farming and livestock raising, high quality handicrafts (eg woodwork, wood construction). A cuisine with a predominance of flour dishes, for example, pancakes, Easter cakes, kulebyak. Gardening

Religion: orthodoxy

People: Tatars

Settlement area: Volga region, Ural, Siberia

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: cattle breeding in a semi-nomadic form (especially horse breeding), weaving, carpet weaving. Dairy and meat dishes (koumiss, for example).

Religion: Islam

People: Bashkirs

Settlement area: Ural

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: semi-nomadic cattle breeding, beekeeping and forest beekeeping, (especially weapons, blacksmithing, felt making, weaving, carpet production). Meat cuisine prevailed

Religion: Islam

People: Chuvash, Mordovians

Settlement area: Volzhe, Priokye

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: farmers, smelted steel, skill in making knives.

Religion: pagans

People: Ukrainians

Settlement area: Left-bank Ukraine (annexed in 1654)

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: agriculture and sedentary cattle breeding, crafts at a high level. Cuisine with a predominance of flour and vegetable dishes (dumplings, kulesh, borsch, uzvar). Gardening

Religion: orthodoxy

People: Mari (cheremis)

Settlement area: Volga region, Priokye

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: beekeepers, forest gatherers (mushrooms and berries), peasants

Religion: pagans

People: Kalmyks

Settlement area: between the rivers Yaik and Volga (became subjects of Russia in 1655)

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: nomadic pastoralists

Religion: Islam, Buddhism

People: Buryats

Settlement area: Transbaikalia (joined in the 17th century)

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: nomadic pastoralists. Meat cuisine. From crafts, dressing of sheepskin, leather, felt, blacksmith's craft.

Religion: paganism, Buddhism

People: Udmurts

Settlement area: Ural

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: nomadic pastoralists, hunters, beekeepers. They were famous for the art of weaving. They lived in communities of relatives.

Religion: Orthodox and pagans

People: Karelians

Settlement area: Karelia

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: hunters, fishermen, lumberjacks, farmers. We hardly used the wheel.

Religion: Orthodox and Lutherans

People: Kabardians, Nogais, Circassians, Abazins, Circassians

Settlement area: North Caucasus

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: cattle breeding (sheep), mining (berries, nuts), handicrafts. Meat and dairy cuisine

Religion: Islam

People: Belarusians

Settlement area: Belarus

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: peasants (sedentary), sedentary agriculture and cattle breeding. Collecting berries and mushrooms, harvesting birch and maple sap. Gardening

Religion: orthodoxy

People: Yakuts, Evenks, Khanty and Mansi, Evens, Chukchi, Koryaks, Tungus, Yukagirs and others

Settlement area: Siberia, Far North, Far East

Culture, main occupations and peculiarities of the way of life: nomadic pastoralists (deer), taiga hunters, fishermen, furs, seals and walrus bones. Mostly they lived in portable prefabricated yurts, yarangas, chums, less often in huts.

Religion: pagans

1. List the stages of European medieval history, name their chronological framework. What's new in the life of society appeared in each of them?
2. Name the largest medieval states in Asia, America and Africa. What were the features of the Middle Ages in these countries?
3. List the empires of the Middle Ages. Which ones survived by the end of the 15th century?
4. What was the contribution of the Arab Islamic civilization to the history and culture of the medieval world?
5. What is estate society? What were the position and responsibilities of each class in medieval society?
6.What do you think was the division or class division that united the medieval society?
7. What associations were created by people of the same class or occupation in medieval Europe? Why did people need such associations?
8. In what areas of life during the Middle Ages, cities played a particularly important role? Why?
9. What was the influence of the church on the life of a medieval person?
Did the position of the Catholic Church in Europe change during the Middle Ages?
10. In your opinion, what new teachings, events, people of the late Middle Ages brought the New Time closer?
11. Many scientists call the modern world the direct heir of the Middle Ages. What facts can prove this point of view?

Write down the concepts: 1. A community of people who are united by self-name, language of communication, lifestyle, customs. 2. One of the religions of the East,

Islam.

3. The stage of development of society, following the primitive system.

4. Religion, the founder of which was<<просветлённый>> Indian prince.

5. A large community of people with their own traditions and characteristics in the economy, culture, etc.

6. Closed groups of Indian society, uniting people by origin and occupation.

7. A religion that recognizes the gods Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and thousands of others.

8. Dependent territory under the rule of the metropolis.

Help solve

Option 1

A) the reunification of Ukraine with Russia;

B) the campaign of False Dmitry to Moscow;

C) the decree on the "class years", the beginning of the search for the peasants.

A) S. Zholkevsky;

B) Sigismund III;

C) False Dmitry I.

A) the policy of Catholicism pursued by False Dmitry I;

B) the need to correct religious books;

C) enslavement of the peasants.

4. Indicate the name of the explorer who discovered in 1648 the strait separating Asia from America:

A) Semyon Dezhnev;

B) Erofey Khabarov;

C) Simon Ushakov.

5. An indefinite search for fugitive peasants would be legalized:

A) in 1592;

B) in 1649;

C) in 1653

6. The first ironworks in Russia was built during the reign of:

A) Vasily Shuisky;

B) Mikhail Fedorovich;

D) Alexei Mikhailovich.

7. Mark the line that characterizes the economic development of Russia in the 17th century:

A) complete domination of natural economy;

B) the creation of manufactories;

C) the widespread use of the slash-and-burn farming system.

8. In 1687 and 1689. Russian troops took part in two campaigns against the Crimean Khanate under the leadership of:

A) D. Pozharsky;

B) B. Khmelnitsky;

C) V. Golitsyn.

9. A vivid illustration of the Naryshkin baroque is the church:

A) Protection in Fili in Moscow;

B) the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl;

C) Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki in Moscow.

10. Who are we talking about. The former servant of Prince Telyatevsky fled to the Don and became a free man. In one of the Cossack campaigns he was captured by the Turks, fled to Italy, lived in Venice. In 1606 he returned to Russia. He called himself the commander of "the miraculously escaped Tsarevich Dmitry." He won victories over government troops several times. He was defeated during the siege of Moscow in 1606. In 1607, near Tula, he was forced to surrender to government troops. In 1608 he was killed.

11. Give a definition - a manufactory, black-mowed peasants, cattle.

Option 2

1. Arrange in chronological order:

A) Cathedral Code;

B) Copper riot in Moscow;

C) Smolensk war.

2. Indicate the name of the patriarch who initiated the church reform:

A) Nikon;

B) Habakkuk;

C) Filaret.

3. Determine the reason for the church schism:

A) changing part of the dogmas and the order of worship;

B) the creation of religious sects;

C) termination of the convocation of Zemsky Sobor.

4. In 1654-1667. Russia fought with:

A) Sweden;

B) Poland;

C) Turkey.

5. The uprising caused by the issue of copper money and, as a result, by the rise in dearness, took place:

A) in 1662;

B) in 1648;

C) in 1668

6. Note the reason why many people joined the army of Stepan Razin:

A) he paid money;

B) he distributed land;

C) he declared each participant in the performance a free person.

7. Indicate the outstanding master of painting in the 17th century, the author of the work "Savior Not Made by Hands":

A) Simeon Polotsky;

B) Simon Ushakov;

C) Andrey Rublev.

8. Yamskaya order was responsible for:

A) fast mail delivery;

B) tax collection;

C) the royal treasury.

9. In the 17th century, the church forbade younger girls to marry:

10. Who are we talking about. Hetman, who led the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against Poland.

11. Give a definition - bareboat, proprietor peasants, booby.

Option 3

1. Arrange in chronological order:

A) the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich;

B) the uprising led by Stepan Razin;

C) urban uprisings in Russia.

2. Indicate the feature that characterizes the concept of "manufacture":

A) small-scale manual production;

B) the master is the owner, the journeyman and the apprentices are the workers;

C) large-scale machine production.

3. Indicate the name of the opponent of the church reform, the head of the Old Believers:

A) Nikon;

B) Habakkuk;

C) Macarius.

4. The reason for the uprising in 1648 was:

A) an attempt to introduce a new tax on salt;

B) the issue of copper money;

C) the introduction of an unlimited search for fugitive peasants.

5. Specify the chronological framework of the uprising led by Stepan Razin:

B) 1654 - 1667;

B) 1667 - 1671.

6. The main entertainment of the king was:

B) falconry or hound hunting;

C) fist fights.

7. The expansion of the territory of the Russian state due to the annexation of the Zaporizhzhya Sich occurs:

A) at the end of the 16th century;

B) in the first half of the 17th century;

C) in the second half of the 17th century.

8. Pathfinder, by name and patronymic of which the village and the railway station are named, and by the last name - the city:

A) Erofey Pavlovich Khabarov;

B) Stepan Timofeevich Razin;

C) Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev.

9. In the 17th century, a new literary genre appeared:

A) an epic;

B) "living";

C) satirical story.

10. Who are we talking about. Born into a prosperous Cossack family in the village of Zimoveyskaya on the Don. He possessed not only great physical strength, but also an extraordinary mind and willpower. The extraordinary qualities of a military leader manifested itself in him during campaigns against the Crimean Tatars and Turks. He gained diplomatic experience during negotiations with the Kalmyks, and then with the Persians.

11. Give a definition - an industrialist, serfdom, hetman.

Description

UKRAANIEIINTSY (self-name), people, the main population of Ukraine (37.4 million people). They also live in Russia (4.36 million people), Kazakhstan (896 thousand people), Moldova (600 thousand people), Belarus (over 290 thousand people), Kyrgyzstan (109 thousand people), Uzbekistan (153 thousand people). . person) and other states on the territory of the former USSR.

The total number is 46 million people, including in Poland (350 thousand people), Canada (550 thousand people), the USA (535 thousand people), Argentina (120 thousand people) and other countries. They speak Ukrainian of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

Ukrainians, along with closely related Russians and Belarusians, belong to the Eastern Slavs. The Ukrainians include the Carpathian (Boyko, Hutsuls, Lemkos) and Polissya (Litvin, Polishchuk) ethnographic groups.

History reference

The formation of the Ukrainian nationality (origin and formation) took place in the 12-15 centuries on the basis of the southwestern part of the East Slavic population, which was previously part of the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus (9-12 centuries). During the period of political fragmentation due to the existing local peculiarities of language, culture and life (in the 12th century the toponym "Ukraine" also appeared), the prerequisites were created for the formation of three East Slavic peoples on the basis of the Old Russian nationality - Ukrainian, Russian and Belarusian.

The main historical center of the formation of the Ukrainian people was the Middle Dnieper region - Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernigov region. A significant integrating role was played by Kiev, which rose from the ruins after the defeat by the Golden Horde invaders in 1240, where the most important shrine of Orthodoxy, the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, was located. Other southwestern East Slavic lands gravitated towards this center - Sivershina, Volyn, Podolia, Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina and Transcarpathia. Beginning in the 13th century, the Ukrainians underwent Hungarian, Lithuanian, Polish and Moldovan conquests.

From the end of the 15th century, the raids of the Tatar khans who established themselves in the Northern Black Sea region began, accompanied by the mass captivity and theft of the Ukrainians. In the 16-17 centuries, in the course of the struggle against foreign conquerors, the Ukrainian nation was significantly consolidated. The most important role in this was played by the emergence of the Cossacks (15th century), which created a state (16th century) with a peculiar republican system - the Zaporozhye Sich, which became a political stronghold of the Ukrainians. In the 16th century, the book Ukrainian (the so-called Old Ukrainian) language was formed. On the basis of the Middle Dnieper dialects at the turn of the 18-19th centuries, the modern Ukrainian (New Ukrainian) literary language was formed.

The defining moments of the ethnic history of Ukrainians in the 17th century were the further development of handicrafts and trade, in particular, in cities that enjoyed Magdeburg law, as well as the creation, as a result of the liberation war under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnytsky, Ukrainian state - the Hetmanate and its entry (1654) as autonomous Russia. This created the preconditions for the further unification of all Ukrainian lands.

In the 17th century, significant groups of Ukrainians moved from the Right Bank, which was part of Poland, as well as from the Dnieper region to the east and southeast, the development of empty steppe lands by them and the formation of the so-called Slobozhanshchina. In the 90s of the 18th century, the Right Bank Ukraine and the southern, and in the first half of the 19th century - the Danubian Ukrainian lands became part of Russia.

The name "Ukraine", used in the 12-13th centuries to designate the southern and southwestern parts of the Old Russian lands, by the 17-18th century in the meaning of "land", i.e. the country was fixed in official documents, became widespread and served as the basis for the ethnonym "Ukrainians". Along with the ethnonyms originally used in relation to their southeastern group - "Ukrainians", "Cossacks", "Cossack people", "Ruski". In the 16th - early 18th century, in the official documents of Russia, the Ukrainians of the Middle Dnieper and Slobozhanshchina were often called "Cherkasy", later, in pre-revolutionary times - "Little Russians", "Little Russians" or "South Russians".

Features of the historical development of various territories of Ukraine, their geographical differences led to the emergence of historical and ethnographic regions of Ukrainians - Polesie, Central Dnieper, South, Podolia, Carpathians, Slobozhanshchina. Ukrainians have created a vibrant and distinctive national culture.

Food varied greatly among different segments of the population. The food was based on vegetable and flour foods (borscht, dumplings, various yushki), cereals (especially millet and buckwheat); dumplings, pampushki with garlic, lemishka, noodles, jelly, etc. Fish, including salted fish, occupied a significant place in food. Meat food was available to the peasantry only on holidays. The most popular were pork and lard.

From flour with the addition of poppy and honey, numerous poppy seeds, cakes, knyshi, bagels were baked. Such drinks as uzvar, varenukha, sirivets, various liqueurs and vodka, including the popular vodka with pepper, were widespread. As ceremonial dishes, the most common were cereals - kutia and kolyvo with honey.

National holidays

Traditions, culture

The Ukrainian folk costume is varied and colorful. Women's clothing consisted of an embroidered shirt (shirts - tunic-like, polikovy or on a yoke) and unstitched clothes: jersey, spare tires, plakhta (from the 19th century a sewn skirt - speednitsa); in cool weather they wore sleeveless jackets (kersets, kiptari, etc.). The girls braided their hair in braids, laying them around their heads and decorating them with ribbons, flowers, or putting a wreath of paper flowers and colorful ribbons on their heads. Women wore various bonnets (ochipka), towel-like hats (namitka, obrus), and later, headscarves.

A man's suit consisted of a shirt (with a narrow stand-up, often embroidered collar with a drawstring) tucked into wide or narrow trousers, sleeveless jackets and belts. In summer, straw flews served as a headdress, at other times - felt or astrakhan, often the so-called smushkov (from smushki), cylinder-like hats. The most common footwear was rawhide postols, and in Polesie - lychak (bast shoes), among the wealthy - boots.

In the autumn-winter period, both men and women wore a retinue and an opanchu - long-length clothes of the same type as the Russian caftan, made of homespun white, gray or black cloth. The women's retinue was fitted. In rainy weather, they wore a retinue with a hood (kobenyak), in winter - long sheepskin sheepskin coats (jackets), covered with cloth by wealthy peasants. Rich embroidery, appliqué, etc. are characteristic.