Preconditions and stages of the formation of the USSR. Prerequisites for the formation of the USSR 3 reasons for the formation of the USSR

It is common for a person to periodically recall the past, subconsciously comparing his image with the present. This is the case now: after the disappearance in 1991 from the arena of a huge superpower - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the USSR, it is often remembered.

Citizens who found those times sometimes mention in conversations that it would be great to revive the USSR. Although the desire for a better life is inherent in everyone, and people offer the optimal, in their opinion, solution, however, before declaring the need to recreate the Union, one should understand well what are the reasons for the formation of the USSR. Obviously, nothing can arise from scratch. Therefore, now, as then, the prerequisites for the formation of the USSR must be identified. Talking about the future is a thankless job, let's leave it to the philosophers. Wise people say that the future is vague if the past is unknown. However, we can now remember what the reasons are and, if necessary, analyze the history.

The prerequisites were laid back in 1917, when, after the overthrow of autocracy, the question of organizing power began to arise more and more often. In 1919, the Central Commission of the RSFSR issued a special decree according to which Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia and Russia unite to oppose world imperialism.

It is important to note that each of these republics remained independent and retained the right to self-determination, and, above all, the railway infrastructure, as well as the military, financial and economic components, became united. Soon, by 1922, they were joined by the countries of the Transcaucasian Federation, including Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. In fact, this is the date of the formation of the USSR - December 30 of the above year.

By the way, at that time there were only 4 republics, the rest joined later. Work began on creating a constitution (1923). At the same time, the Turkmen, Uzbek, Kirghiz Soviet republics arose, which in 1925 entered

It was a time of great change. Every now and then there were delimitations. Its reason lay in the fact that the area of \u200b\u200bsettlement of nationalities often did not coincide with the geographical boundaries of a particular republic. For example, in Central Asia, there were several pro-Soviet formations at once - the Turkestan ASSR (formed in 1918) and two more "people's" - the Khorezm and Bukhara republics. After a series of meetings and "redrawing" of borders, the Turkmen, Kazakh and Uzbek republics were formed. The ways of coexistence of these entities were actively considered, various projects were proposed: from confederation to contractual relationships or, which became predominant, rigid centralized management.

Interestingly, the concept of the unity and friendship of peoples among representatives of different nationalities sometimes radically differed. For example, the proud representatives of Transcaucasia rarely formed alliances. However, in this case, the unification in the ranks of the Soviet Union made it possible to secure their borders from the encroachments of "neighbors".

Summing up, we will indicate what are the reasons for the formation of the USSR:

The main one is, of course, the desire of party leaders to gain enormous power without war;

Mutual assistance in the restoration of infrastructure damaged during;

A single governing body and economic system opened up new opportunities for interaction between the republics within the USSR;

An easy solution to the issue of border protection.

Knowing what are the reasons for the formation of the USSR, it is easy to understand that the most important components of the association are currently missing. In addition, a special ideology is often included in the list of reasons: at that time, each person strove to create world socialism. Alas, even here the condition for the re-establishment of the USSR is not met.

Prerequisites for the formation of the USSR

Before the young state, torn apart by the consequences of the civil war, the problem of creating a unified administrative-territorial system became acute. At that time, the RSFSR accounted for 92% of the country's area, the population of which later accounted for 70% of the newly formed USSR. The remaining 8% were divided between the Soviet republics: Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasian Federation, which united Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia in 1922. Also in the east of the country, the Far Eastern Republic was created, the government of which came from Chita. Central Asia at that time consisted of two people's republics - Khorezm and Bukhara.

In order to strengthen the centralization of management and the concentration of resources on the fronts of the civil war, the RSFSR, Belarus and Ukraine united in a union in June 1919. This made it possible to combine the armed forces, with the introduction of a centralized command (Revolutionary Military Council of the RSFSR and the Commander-in-Chief of the Red Army). Representatives from each republic were delegated to the state authorities. The agreement also provided for the re-subordination of some republican industries, transport and finance to the respective RSFSR People's Commissariats. This state formation went down in history under the name of the "contractual federation". Its peculiarity was that the Russian governing bodies were able to function as the only representatives of the supreme power of the state. At the same time, the communist parties of the republics became part of the RCP (b) only as regional party organizations.
The emergence and growth of confrontation.
All this soon led to the emergence of disagreements between the republics and the center of government in Moscow. After delegating their main powers, the republics have lost the ability to independently make decisions. At the same time, the independence of the republics in the sphere of government was officially declared.
Uncertainty in defining the boundaries of the powers of the center and the republics led to the emergence of conflicts and confusion. Sometimes the state authorities looked ridiculous, trying to bring to a common denominator a nationality, about whose traditions and culture they knew nothing. For example, the need for the existence of a subject for the study of the Koran in the schools of Turkestan gave rise to an acute confrontation between the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the People's Commissariat for Nationalities in October 1922.
Creation of a commission on relations between the RSFSR and the independent republics.
The decisions of the central authorities in the economic sphere did not find proper understanding among the republican authorities and often led to sabotage. In August 1922, in order to radically reverse the current situation, the Politburo and the Organizational Bureau of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) considered the issue "On the relationship between the RSFSR and the independent republics", creating a commission, which included republican representatives. V.V.Kuibyshev was appointed chairman of the commission.
The commission instructed JV Stalin to develop a project for the "autonomization" of the republics. The submitted decision proposed to include Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia in the RSFSR, with the rights of republican autonomy. The draft was sent to the republican Central Committee of the party for consideration. However, this was done only in order to obtain formal approval of the decision. Taking into account the significant infringement of the rights of the republics envisaged by this decision, JV Stalin insisted on not applying the usual practice of publishing the decision of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) if it was adopted. But he demanded to oblige the republican Central Committees of the parties to strictly implement it.
V. I. Lenin's creation of the concept of the state based on the Federation.
Ignoring the independence and self-government of the subjects of the country, with a simultaneous tightening of the role of the central authorities, was perceived by Lenin as a violation of the principle of proletarian internationalism. In September 1922, he proposed the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a state on the principles of a federation. Initially, such a name was proposed - the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia, later it was changed to the USSR. Joining the union was supposed to be a deliberate choice of each sovereign republic, based on the principle of equality and independence, with the general government of the federation. Lenin believed that a multinational state should be built based on the principles of good neighborliness, parity, openness, respect and mutual assistance.

"Georgian conflict". Strengthening separatism.
At the same time, in some republics there was a tilt towards the isolation of autonomies, separatist sentiments intensified. For example, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia flatly refused to remain a part of the Transcaucasian Federation, demanding the admission of the republic to the union as an independent entity. Violent polemics on this issue between representatives of the Central Committee of the Party of Georgia and the chairman of the Transcaucasian Regional Committee GK Ordzhonikidze ended in mutual insults and even assault on the part of Ordzhonikidze. The result of the policy of strict centralization on the part of the central authorities was the voluntary resignation of the entire Central Committee of the Communist Party of Georgia.
To investigate this conflict, a commission was created in Moscow, the chairman of which was F.E.Dzerzhinsky. The commission sided with G.K. Ordzhonikidze and severely criticized the Central Committee of Georgia. This fact outraged V.I.Lenin. He repeatedly tried to condemn the perpetrators of the clash in order to exclude the possibility of infringing on the independence of the republics. However, the progressing illness and civil strife in the Central Committee of the country's party did not allow him to complete the matter.

Year of formation of the USSR

Officially date of formation of the USSR Is December 30, 1922. On this day, at the first congress of Soviets, the Declaration on the Establishment of the USSR and the Union Treaty were signed. The Union included the RSFSR, the Ukrainian and Belarusian Socialist Republics, and the Transcaucasian Federation. The Declaration formulated the reasons and defined the principles of the unification of the republics. The treaty delimited the functions of the republican and central authorities. The state bodies of the Union were entrusted with foreign policy and trade, means of communication, communications, as well as issues of organization and control of finance and defense.
Everything else belonged to the sphere of government of the republics.
The supreme body of the state was proclaimed the All-Union Congress of Soviets. In the period between congresses, the leading role was assigned to the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, organized on the principle of bicameralism - the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities. MI Kalinin was elected chairman of the Central Executive Committee, co-chairmen - GI Petrovsky, NN Narimanov, AG Chervyakov. The government of the Union (Council of People's Commissars of the USSR) was headed by V. I. Lenin.

Financial and economic development
The unification of the republics into the Union made it possible to accumulate and direct all resources to eliminate the consequences of the civil war. This contributed to the development of the economy, cultural relations and made it possible to begin to get rid of the imbalances in the development of individual republics. A characteristic feature of the formation of a nationally oriented state was the government's efforts in matters of harmonious development of the republics. For this, some production facilities were moved from the territory of the RSFSR to the republics of Central Asia and the Transcaucasia, providing them with highly qualified labor resources. Financing was carried out to provide regions with communication routes, electricity, water resources for irrigation in agriculture. The budgets of the rest of the republics received subsidies from the state.
Social and cultural significance
The principle of building a multinational state on the basis of uniform standards had a positive impact on the development of such spheres of life in the republics as culture, education and healthcare. In the 1920s and 1930s, schools were built everywhere in the republics, theaters were opened, the media and literature were developing. For some peoples, scientists have developed writing. In health care, emphasis is placed on the development of a system of medical institutions. For example, if in 1917 there were 12 clinics and only 32 doctors in the entire North Caucasus, then in 1939 only in Dagestan there were 335 doctors. Moreover, 14% of them were from the original nationality.

Reasons for the formation of the USSR

It happened not only thanks to the initiative of the leadership of the Communist Party. Over the centuries, the preconditions for the unification of peoples into a single state have been formed. The harmony of the association has deep historical, economic, military-political and cultural roots. The former Russian Empire united 185 nationalities and nationalities. All of them have passed a common historical path. During this time, a system of economic and economic ties has developed. They defended their freedom, absorbed the best from each other's cultural heritage. And, naturally, they did not feel hostility towards each other.
It is worth considering that at that time the entire territory of the country was surrounded by hostile states. This also influenced the unification of peoples to no less extent.

the October Revolution led to the collapse of the Russian Empire. After the civil war, 6 formally sovereign Soviet republics were formed: the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, the Georgian SSR, the Armenian SSR, and the Azerbaijan SSR. In 1922, the three Transcaucasian republics were united into the Transcaucasian Federation (TSFSR).

1. Political background: the unified nature of the political system (the dictatorship of the proletariat in the form of a republic of Soviets), similar features of the organization of state power and administration.

2. Historical background: the common historical destinies of the peoples of the multinational state, the presence of long-term economic and cultural ties.

3. Foreign policy prerequisites: The instability of the international position of the young Soviet republics in a capitalist encirclement.

The republics were associated with the RSFSR by military-political, military-economic and diplomatic alliances, a single Red Army.

Military-political union Soviet republics took shape in the summer of 1919. On June 1, 1919, a decree was signed "On the unification of the Soviet republics of Russia, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus for the fight against world imperialism." The military-political unity of the Soviet republics played an important role in the defeat of the joint intervention forces.

Military-economic union.In 1920-1921. Bilateral treaties were concluded on a military-economic alliance between Russia and Azerbaijan, a military and economic alliance between Russia and Belarus, allied treaties between Russia and Ukraine, Russia and Georgia. During this period, representatives of Ukraine, Belarus, the Transcaucasian republics entered the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the RSFSR, and the unification of some people's commissariats began. As a result, the Supreme Council of the National Economy of the RSFSR (All-Russian Council for the National Economy) actually turned into a governing body for the industry of all republics. In 1921, the State Planning Committee of the RSFSR was created, headed by G.M. Krzhizhanovsky, called upon to lead the implementation of a single economic plan.

Diplomatic Union. In February 1922 in Moscow, a meeting of representatives of the RSFSR, Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Bukhara, Khorezm and the Far Eastern Republic instructed the delegation of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee to represent the interests of all Soviet republics at an international conference in Genoa (in April 1922), to conclude from them on behalf of any contracts and agreements. The RSFSR delegation was replenished with representatives from Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia.

Forms of unification of republics and the formation of the USSR. The practice of the first years of Soviet power was to create autonomies in the Russian Federation on a national, territorial, and economic basis. In 1918-1922. peoples, mainly small and compactly living surrounded by the Great Russian lands, received in the RSFSR autonomy of two levels:

1. republican - 11 autonomous republics (Turkestan, Bashkir, Karelian, Buryat, Yakutsk, Tatar, Dagestan, Gorskaya, etc.);

2. regional- 10 regions (Kalmyk, Chuvash, Komi-Zyryansk, Adyghe, Kabardino-Balkarian, etc.) and 1 autonomy Karelian labor commune (since 1923 an autonomous republic).

Stalin headed the Commissariat for Nationalities and developed a plan for "autonomization", according to which the independent republics were to enter the Russian Federation as autonomies. Representatives of the Communist Party of Georgia and Ukraine reacted negatively to the Stalinist project.

Lenin, the chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, also condemned this Stalinist plan and proposed, in turn, a plan for creating a federal union as a voluntary and equal unification of the republics. Union republics must transfer, on an equal footing, a number of their sovereign rights to the all-union authorities.

December 30, 1922 the first All-Union Congress of Soviets took place. Congress basically approved the Declaration and the Treaty on the formation of the USSR as part of four republics - the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR and the ZSFSR (in which Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia were united even earlier). Declarationlegislated the principles of the union state structure: voluntariness, equality and cooperation on the basis of proletarian internationalism. Access to the union remained open to all Soviet republics that could arise during the world revolution. Contractdetermined the procedure for the entry of individual republics into the USSR, the competence of the highest bodies of state power. Each republic retained the right to freely secede from the Union, but the mechanism for exercising this right was not described. The congress elected the Central Executive Committee of the USSR (CEC) - the supreme authority in the period between congresses.

January 1924 year was the first Constitution of the USSR was adopted, according to which the supreme authority was the Congress of Soviets of the USSR. In the intervals between them, the supreme power was exercised by the Central Executive Committee of the USSR, which consisted of two legislative chambers - the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities. The CEC formed a government - SNK. Three types of commissariats were created:

1. Allied (foreign affairs, army and navy, foreign trade, communications, communications, OGPU).

2. Unified (at the union and republican level).

3. Republican (domestic policy, jurisprudence, public education).

The powers for international border defense, internal security, planning and budgeting were also transferred to the allied bodies.

The federal principle of the state structure was proclaimed. The Constitution of the USSR contained unitary tendencies, providing the possibility of intervention by the center and its control over the republican authorities. From the time of the adoption of the Constitution of 1924 to the Constitution of 1936, the process of nation-state building took place, which was carried out in the following directions:

The formation of new union republics,

· Change of the state and legal form of some republics and autonomous regions,

· Strengthening the role of the center, union authorities.

In 1924, as a result of the national-state demarcation in Central Asia, where the borders did not coincide with the ethnic boundaries of the settlement of peoples, the Turkmen and Uzbek SSR were formed, in 1931. - Tajik SSR. In 1936, the Kyrgyz and Kazakh SSRs were formed. In the same year, the Transcaucasian Federation was abolished, and the republics - Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, became directly part of the USSR.

In 1939, after the signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact, which included a secret protocol on the division of Poland between Germany and the USSR, Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were annexed to the Soviet Union. In March 1940, after the end of the war with Finland, new territories were annexed to the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, and it was transformed into the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic. In the summer of 1940, the USSR included Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, as well as Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.

The formation of the USSR contributed to the development of the economy, culture, overcoming the backwardness of some republics. At the same time, Soviet nationality policy was characterized by serious contradictions. The sovereignty of the union republics actually remained nominal, since the real power in them was concentrated in the hands of the committees of the RCP (b). Stalin's repressions in the republics and the subsequent deportations of peoples had a negative impact on national policy. By the end of the 30s. there was a final transition to a unitary model of the state in its Stalinist version.

PREREQUISITES FOR THE TRANSITION TO A NEW ECONOMIC POLICY

1. Economic.The need to change the internal political course of the Soviet state after the end of the Civil War was caused by the crisis, which acquired a total character, affecting the area of \u200b\u200beconomic, political and social relations. The state distribution policy did not fulfill the task of providing the urban population with food. The policy of "war communism" gave the development of the economy a one-sided character and became a brake on expanded reproduction. It was necessary to restore the economy destroyed by the war and "war communism".

2. Socio-political.Economic problems were closely intertwined with major political issues, such as attitudes towards Soviet power.

Unwillingness to endure the surplus appropriation led to the creation of insurgent centers in the Middle Volga region, on the Don, Kuban. Basmachi became active in Turkestan. In February - March 1921, the West Siberian rebels created armed formations of several thousand people. March 1, 1921 outbreak of mutiny in Kronstadt,during which political slogans were put forward ("Power to the Soviets, not the parties!", "Soviets without the Bolsheviks!").There were strikes and demonstrations of workers. Representatives of the parties of moderate socialists, who since the end of 1918 have supported the struggle of the Bolsheviks against whites and the interventionists, criticized the emergency measures in the economy.

As a result, the Soviet regime faced a serious internal political crisis. There was a real threat to the power of the Bolsheviks. In the absence of a world revolution, only an agreement with the peasantry could save the situation. The issue of changing the economic course - replacing the surplus appropriation with a natural tax - was at the center of party discussions.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF NEP

1. The essence of NEP (1921-1928).This policy was initiated by the decision to replace the surplus appropriation tax in kind,adopted on X Congress of the RCP (b) in March 1921Initially, NEP was viewed by the Bolsheviks as a "temporary retreat" caused by an unfavorable balance of forces. The category of deviations included a return to state capitalism (in a number of sectors of the economy) and the implementation of a link between industry and agriculture on the basis of trade and money circulation.

Then NEP was already assessed as one of the possible paths to socialism through the coexistence of socialist and market economies and the gradual - with relying on commanding heights in politics, economics, ideology - the displacement of non-socialist economic forms. This meant that the entire peasantry (and not only its poorest part) became a full participant in socialist construction.

2. Nap meant above all restoration of commodity-money relationsin trade, industry, agriculture. In order to restore industry and establish a commodity exchange between town and country, it was envisaged:

Partial denationalization of industry, development of small-scale and handicraft production;

Introduced self-financing,self-supporting associations were created — trusts and syndicates;

There was a rejection of labor mobilization and equalizing wages;

State capitalist enterprises were created in the form of concessions, mixed companies, and leases.

3. Financial policyin the years of the New Economic Policy it was characterized by a well-known decentralization of the credit system (commercial loans were allocated).

Credit system. IN 1921 g.was recreated National Bank,later, the Commercial and Industrial Bank, the Russian Commercial Bank, the Bank for Consumer Cooperatives, a network of cooperative and local communal banks arose. Created in 1924 Central Agricultural Bankfor 3 years has allocated loans to rural cooperatives in the amount of 400 million rubles. A system of direct and indirect taxes was introduced (trade, income, excise taxes on consumer goods, local taxes).

Monetary reform (1922-1924) was the most effective and most "market" measure of the financial policy of the Soviet government of that period. The reform has stabilized the financial position. A stable (convertible) currency was issued - ducat,which was equal to 10 pre-revolutionary gold rubles. It is important that the reform, carried out by financiers with pre-revolutionary experience, established the ratio of supply and demand as a criterion for the size of the issue.

4. Trade.The New Economic Policy has shown significant economic results, especially in the early years of its implementation. The development of commodity-money relations led to the restoration of the all-Russian internal market (large fairs were recreated - Nizhny Novgorod, Baku, Irbit, etc.). By 1923, 54 stock exchanges were opened for wholesale transactions. Retail trade developed rapidly, and it was 3/4 in the hands of private traders.

Industry.

Decentralization. Real transformations have taken place in industry. Chapters were abolished, and instead of them created trusts- amalgamations of single-industry enterprises that received partial economic and economic independence. In 1922, about 90% of industrial enterprises were united in 421 trusts. VSNKh lost the right to interfere in the current activities of enterprises and trusts. The trusts were united in syndicates,engaged in sales, supply, lending. By the end of 1922, 80% of the trusted industry was syndicated (by 1928 there were 23 syndicates).

The industry has developed rent.A number of enterprises were leased to foreign firms in the form of concessions. In 1926-1927. there were 117 existing agreements of this kind, on the basis of which 1% of industrial output was produced.

The pace industrial growth. As a result, in industry the growth of output in the first years of the NEP was carried out at a very high rate. In 1921 they were 42.1%; 1925 - 66.1%, 1926 - 43.2%, 1927 - 14.2%. Trust self-financing, even limited, made it possible to revive heavy industry and transport. By the end of the 1920s, the Soviet economy as a whole was only slightly behind the pre-war level.

NEP in agriculture.

Tax in kind. Introduced instead of surplus appropriation food taxwas initially set at 20% of the net product of peasant labor, and then reduced to 10% of the harvest and less and took the form of money. The tax was half the allotment, its amount was announced in advance (on the eve of the sowing season) and could not be increased during the year. The peasants' surplus was allowed to be sold at market prices. However, the "retreat" was carried out gradually, under the pressure of circumstances. The peasantry received the right to free trade in grain only in august-september 1921(before that, the sale was only possible within the "local turnover") when it turned out that the village was in no hurry to hand over grain to the state.

IN 1922 g.by new land codeland lease was allowed in long term lease(up to 12 years old), separating the peasant from the communityfor the organization of farms and otrubny farms (this measure was timely, since as a result of the agrarian reform of 1917-1920, almost all the peasants were again in the community). The ban was removed from employment of wage laborand creating credit partnerships.The total amount of a single agricultural tax.

Development of cooperation.Various forms of cooperation were developing in the countryside. Cooperative property was viewed as a form of socialist property. During the NEP period, the cooperation became an independent organization, which was characterized by voluntary membership, share contributions, as well as the principles of material interest and cost accounting. Agricultural cooperatives united 6.5 million peasant farms, which accounted for the procurement of half of the raw materials consumed by the state industry, as well as the promotion of agricultural machinery to the village. There was an increase in agricultural cooperation: in 1920, there were 12850 different types of associations (of which production-10521); in 1925 - 54813 (production - 15178). Production cooperation included agricultural communes, artels, TOZs, state farms - all mostly poor and middle peasants. State and cooperative trade in 1924 was 47.3%; in 1927 - 65.4%.

Restoring the peasant economy.The revival of the agricultural market, the rise of industry, and the introduction of hard currency stimulated the restoration of the Russian countryside. By 1923, the sown area was mainly restored. In 1925 the gross grain harvest exceeded the level of 1909-1913 by 20.7%. By 1927, the pre-war level in animal husbandry was reached. The export of agricultural products and raw materials abroad began to develop.

7. Social aspects of NEP.

The standard of living of the people.Individual economic successes contributed to some improvement in the material situation of the population. Compulsory labor service was abolished and the main restrictions on changing jobs were lifted. In industry and other sectors, monetary wages were restored, and wage tariffs were introduced, excluding equalization. The real wages of workers have increased markedly, amounting to 1925-1926. the industry average is 93.7% of the pre-war level. The consumption of food has approached the pre-revolutionary level.

Employment.In 1924-1929. the absolute number of the unemployed rose from 1.2 to 1.7 million, but the expansion of the labor market was even more significant. During the same period, the number of workers and employees increased from 5.8 to 12.4 million people. At the same time, the duration of the working day was 7 hours with a 6-day working week.

There have been changes in the social structure of the village. In the 1920s, middle peasants (over 60%) predominated in rural areas, the prosperous (whose development was limited by the state) numbered 3-4%, the poor 22-26%, and farm laborers 10-11%.

3. POLITICAL SYSTEM IN THE YEARS OF THE NEP

1. New legislation and justice.The new economic course required appropriate legal support. In 1922, a labor code, land and civil codes were adopted, and a judicial reform was prepared. The revolutionary tribunals were canceled, the activities of the prosecutor's office and the legal profession resumed. Even earlier, the Cheka, renamed to Main Political Directorate (GPU),lost the right extrajudicial prosecution.

2. Measures to weaken the political dictatorship.The first months of the New Economic Policy were marked by a certain liberalization of the country's socio-political and cultural life, the center of whose revival is becoming Moscow University. The publication of almanacs and pre-revolutionary magazines was resumed, private publishing houses were opened; associations of poets, artists, and independent unions of writers were created.

The process of re-emigration began, as a result of which more than 120 thousand refugees returned to Soviet Russia.

3. Tightening of the political regime.However, it was only about partial and temporary measures. 10th of August 1922 g.All-Russian Central Executive Committee adopted the decree "On the administrative expulsion of persons recognized as socially dangerous",according to which the commission under the NKVD could make decisions on the expulsion and imprisonment of "socially unreliable elements" in camps without a trial. In 1924, the same right received special meeting of the OGPU.The number of prisoners in prisons and concentration camps grew rapidly. Expulsion abroad was practiced. In the fall of 1922, a large group of scientists and philosophers (about 160 people in total) was expelled. The repressions affected the leaders of the Russian Orthodox Church.

4. The relationship of the RCP (b) with other political parties and the opposition.

The emerging liberalization did not affect the relationship of the RCP (b) with other political parties. A tough political regime and ideological censorship remained in the country. After the end of the Civil War, a particularly merciless struggle unfolded against the socialist parties.

8 december 1921 g.The Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) adopted a decree prohibiting the Menshevik Party (RSDLP) from engaging in political activities.The most active of its members were proposed to be expelled by administrative order to non-proletarian centers, depriving them of the opportunity to hold elective posts. Special commissions were instructed to work out the question of removing the Mensheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries from the bodies of the trade union, the People's Commissariat of Labor, cooperative and economic bodies, which meant political death for the RSDLP.

In 1922, the leaders were tried socialist Revolutionary Party,accused of having links with the Entente, unleashing terror and organizing an attempt on Lenin's life. Resolution of the XII All-Russian Conference of the RCP (b) (4 -August 7 1922 g) "On anti-Soviet parties and trends"declared all the democratic parties that once existed in the country anti-Soviet. In accordance with this, the task was set "in a relatively short period of time to finally liquidate the Socialist-Revolutionary and Menshevik parties as political factors."

Wrestling from the internal party opposition. The resolution of the X Congress of the RCP (b) "On the unity of the party" prohibited factional activities, which resulted in the struggle against dissent within the party itself.

CONTRADICTIONS OF THE NEP

1. In the political field.The main contradiction of NEP was an attempt to preserve the unchanged nature of political power under conditions of socio-economic transformations (the dictatorship of the proletariat, one-party membership, the absence of opposition, the prevention of dissent in the party, the course towards the complete "victory of socialism in one country"). The preservation of the non-democratic electoral system (open voting, multi-stage elections to the congresses of the Soviets, the deprivation of civil rights of private traders and Nepmen traders) completely contradicted the very essence of the economic reform.

2. In the economic field.The priority of industry over agriculture, the unequal exchange of goods between town and country constituted another contradiction of the NEP period, which permanently threatened the authorities with new conflicts with the peasantry.

First manifestations nEP crisiswere discovered already in 1923-1924. (sales crisis, "Commodity shortage"etc.). The crises were associated with the imperfection of new forms of management and the lack of firm legal guarantees. Growth of a large commodity economy in the villagerestrained by the tax policy of the state. In 1922-1923. the poorest peasants were exempted from the agricultural tax - 3% of farms; in 1925-1926. - already 25%; in 1927 - 35%. Well-to-do owners (9.6% of peasant households) paid 29.2% of taxes and their growth continued.

The negative consequences of the "restriction of the kulaks as a class" were aggravated by the equalizing redistribution of land regularly carried out by the Soviet authorities, which entailed a general fragmentation of peasant households. In the second half of the 1920s, the collection of grain began to decline, an increasing part of the land was transferred to the sowing of industrial crops that were not subject to tax in kind. Already in 1925 - the most productive - the state faced grain procurement crisis,which led to the strengthening of planning and administrative principles in the management of the economy.

Significant problems arose and in industry.By 1927, its growth rate had slowed sharply. Industrial development resources were exhausted. The restoration of factories and factories that existed before 1917 was completed by 1925; further modernization and construction of new enterprises required new capital investments.

3. The curtailment of NEP.Against the background of economic difficulties, the gradual curtailment of NEP took place. As a result of another procurement crisis, the Soviet government virtually eliminated the free sale of grain. In the winter of 1927, special detachments "intercepted" peasant carts with grain transported to markets. During 1926-1927. the grain market was finally remonopolized, and the market pricing mechanism was replaced by a directive one.

In 1926, as a result of a departure from the principles of monetary circulation, introduced in 1922-1924, the chervonets ceased to be converted, operations with it abroad ceased, which dealt a blow to the international reputation of the USSR. By the end of the 1920s, commodity exchanges and wholesale fairs were closed, and commercial credit was liquidated. Many private enterprises were nationalized.

FINDINGS

1. The new economic policy, designed to attract the entire Russian peasantry to cooperation, has shown in the post-war period its efficiency.

2. At the same time, many internal socio-economic problems.The NEP system experienced crises with a certain cyclical nature. Low marketability led to a decrease in the volume of exports of agricultural products, which immediately affected the import of equipment for industrialization.

3. Since the mid-1920s, the sphere of market relations began to curtail, the centralization of economic life and administrative methods of economic management increased. By the end of the 1920s, the country's leadership faced another alternative: either the surrender of the positions of Soviet power and a further retreat in the economic sphere (the deepening of the NEP), or a course towards "full and final victory ”of the new socialist relations. Was

the second option, proposed by the Stalinist party of power, was chosen and meant the rejection of NEP, and, consequently, from taking into account the interests of the peasantry.

Some historians regard the NEP economy as the ideal model of a “socialist market economy,” as evidenced by the First Five-Year Plan, with its emphasis on balanced growth, which is seen as an alternative to Stalin's course of industrialization. The authors of a different point of view, based on the analysis of the contradictions and crises of NEP, come to the conclusion that the market tendency was limited in the years of NEP and that there were no prospects for its development in the future.

BACKGROUND OF THE FORMATION OF THE USSR

1. Ideological.October Revolution of 1917 led to the collapse of the Russian Empire. The disintegration of the former unified state space, which had existed for several centuries, took place. The Bolshevik idea of \u200b\u200ba world revolution and the creation of a World Federative Republic of Soviets in the future forced a new unification process. The RSFSR, whose authorities were interested in restoring a unitary state on the territory of the former Russian Empire, played an active role in the deployment of the unification movement.

2. Political.In connection with the victory of Soviet power in the main territory of the former Russian Empire, another prerequisite for the unification process arose - the unified nature of the political system (the dictatorship of the proletariat in the form of the Republic of Soviets), similar features of the organization of state power and administration. In most republics, power belonged to the national communist parties that were part of the RCP (b). The instability of the international position of the young Soviet republics in the conditions of the capitalist encirclement also dictated the need for unification.

3. Economic and cultural.The need for unification was also dictated by the common historical destinies of the peoples of the multinational state, the existence of long-term economic and cultural ties.

Historically, an economic division of labor has developed between the various regions of the country: the industry of the center supplied the regions of the southeast and the north, receiving in return raw materials — cotton, timber, flax; the southern regions acted as the main suppliers of oil, coal, iron ore, etc. The significance of this division increased after the end of the Civil War, when the task arose of restoring the destroyed economy and overcoming the economic backwardness of the Soviet republics. Textile and woolen factories, tanneries, printing houses were transferred to the national republics and regions from the central provinces, doctors and teachers were sent. The GOELRO (electrification of Russia) plan, adopted in 1920, was also designed for a single economic mechanism for all regions of the country.

4. The basic principles of the national policy of the Soviet governmentcontributed to the unification processes. They included:

The principle of equality of all nations and nationalities;

Recognition of the right of nations to self-determination,

which were proclaimed in "Declaration of the rights of the peoples of Russia" (November 2, 1917)and "Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People" (January 1918).Beliefs, customs, national and cultural institutions of the peoples of the Volga region and Crimea, Siberia and Turkestan, the Caucasus and Transcaucasia were declared free and inviolable, which caused an increase in confidence in the new government not only on the part of foreigners in Russia (who constituted 57% of the population), but also in European countries and Asia. Within the framework of the Council of People's Commissars, the post of People's Commissar for National Affairs was created, which was headed by I. V. Stalin.Corresponding structures appeared as part of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) - Donburo, Sredazburo, Turkburo, Caucasus Bureau.

IN december 1917 the right to self-determinationgot Poland and Finland.In the rest of the territory of the former Russian Empire, the national governments in power (including the Ukrainian Central Rada, the Belarusian Socialist Gromada, the Turkic Musavat Party in Azerbaijan, the Kazakh Alash, etc.) fought during the Civil War for national independence.