Cosmic factors. Space Dust Fallout Cause of Space Dust Creation

Space exploration (meteoric) dust on the surface of the earth: problem overview

AND.P. Boyarkina, L.M. Gindilis

Cosmic dust as an astronomical factor

Space dust is understood to mean solid particles ranging in size from fractions of a micron to several microns. Dusty matter is one of the important components of outer space. It fills interstellar, interplanetary and near-earth space, penetrates the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere and falls to the Earth's surface in the form of so-called meteoric dust, being one of the forms of material (material and energy) exchange in the "Space - Earth" system. At the same time, it affects a number of processes occurring on Earth.

Dusty matter in interstellar space

The interstellar medium consists of gas and dust, mixed in a ratio of 100: 1 (by mass), i.e. the dust mass is 1% of the gas mass. The average density of a gas is 1 hydrogen atom per cubic centimeter or 10 -24 g / cm 3. The dust density is correspondingly 100 times less. Despite such an insignificant density, dusty matter has a significant impact on the processes taking place in Space. First of all, interstellar dust absorbs light, because of this, distant objects located near the plane of the galaxy (where the concentration of dust is greatest) is not visible in the optical region. For example, the center of our Galaxy is observed only in the infrared, radio and X-ray ranges. And other galaxies can be observed in the optical range if they are located far from the galactic plane, at high galactic latitudes. The absorption of light by dust leads to a distortion of the distances to stars, determined photometrically. Taking absorption into account is one of the most important problems in observational astronomy. When interacting with dust, the spectral composition and polarization of light change.

Gas and dust in the galactic disk are unevenly distributed, forming separate gas and dust clouds, the concentration of dust in them is approximately 100 times higher than in the intercloud environment. Dense clouds of gas and dust block the light of the stars behind them. Therefore, they appear as dark regions in the sky, which are called dark nebulae. An example is the area of \u200b\u200bthe "Embersack" in the Milky Way or the "Horsehead" nebula in the constellation of Orion. If there are bright stars near a gas and dust cloud, then thanks to the scattering of light on dust particles, such clouds glow, they are called reflection nebulae. An example is the reflection nebula in the Pleiades cluster. The densest are clouds of molecular hydrogen H 2, their density is 10 4 -10 5 times higher than in clouds of atomic hydrogen. Accordingly, the density of dust is as much higher. In addition to hydrogen, molecular clouds contain dozens of other molecules. Dust particles are the nuclei of condensation of molecules; chemical reactions take place on their surface with the formation of new, more complex molecules. Molecular clouds are a region of intense star formation.

In terms of composition, interstellar particles consist of a refractory core (silicates, graphite, silicon carbide, iron) and a shell of volatile elements (H, H 2, O, OH, H 2 O). There are also very small silicate and graphite particles (without a shell) in the order of hundredths of a micron. According to the hypothesis of F. Hoyle and C. Wickramasing, a significant proportion of interstellar dust, up to 80%, consists of bacteria.

The interstellar medium is continuously replenished due to the influx of matter during the ejection of stellar shells at the later stages of their evolution (especially during supernova explosions). On the other hand, she herself is the source of the formation of stars and planetary systems.

Dusty matter in interplanetary and near-earth space

Interplanetary dust is formed mainly during the decay of periodic comets, as well as the fragmentation of asteroids. The formation of dust occurs continuously, and the process of dust grains falling on the Sun under the influence of radiation braking is also ongoing. As a result, a constantly renewing dusty environment is formed that fills the interplanetary space and is in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Its density, although higher than in interstellar space, is still very small: 10 -23 -10 -21 g / cm 3. However, it diffuses sunlight noticeably. When it is scattered on particles of interplanetary dust, such optical phenomena as zodiacal light, Fraunhofer component of the solar corona, zodiacal stripe, and antiglow appear. The zodiacal component of the glow of the night sky is also due to scattering by dust particles.

Dusty matter in the solar system is highly concentrated towards the ecliptic. In the plane of the ecliptic, its density decreases approximately proportionally to the distance from the Sun. Near the Earth, as well as near other large planets, the concentration of dust increases under the influence of their attraction. Particles of interplanetary dust move around the Sun in contracting (due to radiation braking) elliptical orbits. Their speed is several tens of kilometers per second. When colliding with solids, including spacecraft, they cause noticeable surface erosion.

Colliding with the Earth and burning in its atmosphere at an altitude of about 100 km, cosmic particles cause the well-known phenomenon of meteors (or "shooting stars"). On this basis, they are called meteoric particles, and the entire complex of interplanetary dust is often called meteoric matter or meteoric dust. Most meteoric particles are loose bodies of cometary origin. Among them, two groups of particles are distinguished: porous particles with a density of 0.1 to 1 g / cm 3 and the so-called dust lumps or fluffy flakes resembling snowflakes with a density of less than 0.1 g / cm 3. In addition, denser particles of the asteroidal type with a density of more than 1 g / cm 3 are less common. At high altitudes, loose meteors prevail, at altitudes below 70 km - asteroidal particles with an average density of 3.5 g / cm 3.

As a result of crushing of loose meteoric bodies of cometary origin at altitudes of 100-400 km from the Earth's surface, a rather dense dusty shell is formed, the concentration of dust in which is tens of thousands of times higher than in interplanetary space. The scattering of sunlight in this envelope causes the twilight glow of the sky when the sun sinks below the horizon below 100 º.

The largest and smallest meteoric bodies of the asteroidal type reach the Earth's surface. The first (meteorites) reach the surface due to the fact that they do not have time to completely collapse and burn up when flying through the atmosphere; the latter, due to the fact that their interaction with the atmosphere, due to their insignificant mass (at a sufficiently high density), occurs without noticeable destruction.

Falling out of space dust on the Earth's surface

If meteorites have long been in the field of science, cosmic dust has not attracted the attention of scientists for a long time.

The concept of cosmic (meteoric) dust was introduced into science in the second half of the 19th century, when the famous Dutch polar explorer A.E. Nordenskjöld discovered dust of presumably cosmic origin on the ice surface. Around the same time, in the mid-70s of the XIX century, I. Murray described rounded magnetite particles found in the sediments of deep-sea sediments of the Pacific Ocean, the origin of which was also associated with cosmic dust. However, these assumptions have not been confirmed for a long time, remaining within the framework of the hypothesis. At the same time, the scientific study of cosmic dust progressed extremely slowly, as pointed out by Academician V.I. Vernadsky in 1941.

He first drew attention to the problem of cosmic dust in 1908 and then returned to it in 1932 and 1941. In the work "On the study of cosmic dust" V.I. Vernadsky wrote: “... The Earth is connected with cosmic bodies and with outer space not only by the exchange of different forms of energy. It is closely connected with them materially ... Among the material bodies falling on our planet from outer space, meteorites and usually the cosmic dust that are usually included in our direct study are accessible to our direct study ... for us it is always unexpected in its manifestation ... Space dust is a different matter: everything indicates that it is falling continuously, and it is possible that this continuity of falling exists at every point of the biosphere, is evenly distributed over the entire planet. It is surprising that this phenomenon, one might say, has not been studied at all and completely disappears from scientific accounting.» .

Considering in this article the known largest meteorites, V.I. Vernadsky pays special attention to the Tunguska meteorite, the search for which under his direct supervision was engaged in L.A. Sandpiper. Large fragments of the meteorite were not found, and in this regard, V.I. Vernadsky makes the assumption that he “... is a new phenomenon in the annals of science - the penetration into the area of \u200b\u200bgravity not of a meteorite, but of a huge cloud or clouds of cosmic dust traveling at cosmic speed» .

To the same topic V.I. Vernadsky returned in February 1941 in his report "On the need to organize scientific work on cosmic dust" at a meeting of the Committee on Meteorites of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In this document, along with theoretical reflections on the origin and role of cosmic dust in geology and especially in the geochemistry of the Earth, he substantiates in detail the program for the search and collection of cosmic dust matter that fell on the Earth's surface, with the help of which, he believes, a number of problems can be solved. scientific cosmogony about the qualitative composition and "the dominant significance of cosmic dust in the structure of the Universe." It is necessary to study cosmic dust and take it into account as a source of cosmic energy that is continuously brought to us from the surrounding space. The mass of cosmic dust, noted V.I. Vernadsky, has atomic and other nuclear energy, which is not indifferent in its existence in Space and in its manifestation on our planet. To understand the role of cosmic dust, he stressed, it is necessary to have sufficient material for its study. The organization of the collection of cosmic dust and the scientific study of the collected material is the first task facing scientists. Promising for this purpose V.I. Vernadsky considers natural snow and glacier plates of high-mountainous and arctic regions remote from industrial human activities.

The Great Patriotic War and the death of V.I. Vernadsky, prevented the implementation of this program. However, it became relevant in the second half of the twentieth century and contributed to the intensification of studies of meteoric dust in our country.

In 1946, on the initiative of Academician V.G. Fesenkov, an expedition was organized to the mountains of the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau (Northern Tien Shan), the task of which was to study solid particles with magnetic properties in snow deposits. The snow sampling site was chosen on the left side moraine of the Tuyuk-Su glacier (altitude 3500 m); most of the ridges surrounding the moraine were covered with snow, which reduced the possibility of pollution with earth dust. It was also removed from sources of dust associated with human activities, and surrounded on all sides by mountains.

The method of collecting cosmic dust in the snow cover was as follows. Snow was collected from a strip 0.5 m wide to a depth of 0.75 m with a wooden shovel, transferred and melted in an aluminum dish, merged into a glass dish, where a solid fraction precipitated within 5 hours. Then the upper part of the water was drained, a new batch of melted snow was added, etc. As a result, 85 buckets of snow with a total area of \u200b\u200b1.5 m 2 and a volume of 1.1 m 3 were melted. The resulting sediment was transferred to the laboratory of the Institute of Astronomy and Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR, where the water was evaporated and subjected to further analysis. However, since these studies did not give a definite result, N.B. Divari concluded that in this case, it is better to use either very old compacted firns or open glaciers for snow sampling.

Significant progress in the study of cosmic meteoric dust began in the middle of the twentieth century, when, in connection with the launches of artificial earth satellites, direct methods of studying meteor particles were developed - their direct registration by the number of collisions with a spacecraft or various types of traps (installed on satellites and geophysical rockets, launched to a height of several hundred kilometers). Analysis of the materials obtained made it possible, in particular, to detect the presence of a dust envelope around the Earth at altitudes from 100 to 300 km above the surface (as discussed above).

Along with the study of dust using spacecraft, the study of particles in the lower atmosphere and various natural storage tanks was carried out: in alpine snows, in the ice sheet of Antarctica, in the polar ice of the Arctic, in peat deposits and deep sea silt. The latter are observed mainly in the form of so-called "magnetic balls", that is, dense spherical particles with magnetic properties. The size of these particles is from 1 to 300 microns, the mass is from 10 -11 to 10 -6 g.

Another direction is associated with the study of astrophysical and geophysical phenomena associated with cosmic dust; this includes various optical phenomena: the glow of the night sky, noctilucent clouds, zodiacal light, anti-glare, etc. Their study also makes it possible to obtain important data on cosmic dust. Meteor studies were included in the program of the International Geophysical Years 1957-1959 and 1964-1965.

As a result of these studies, estimates of the total inflow of cosmic dust to the Earth's surface were refined. According to T.N. Nazarova, I.S. Astapovich and V.V. Fedynsky, the total inflow of cosmic dust to the Earth reaches 10 7 tons / year. According to A.N. Simonenko and B.Yu. Levin (according to data for 1972), the inflow of cosmic dust to the Earth's surface is 10 2 -10 9 t / year, according to other, later studies - 10 7 -10 8 t / year.

Research on collecting meteoric dust continued. At the suggestion of academician A.P. Vinogradov, during the 14th Antarctic expedition (1968-1969), work was carried out to identify the patterns of spatio-temporal distributions of extraterrestrial matter deposition in the Antarctic ice sheet. The surface layer of snow cover was studied in the areas of Molodezhnaya, Mirny, Vostok stations and in a section about 1400 km long between Mirny and Vostok stations. Snow sampling was carried out from pits 2-5 m deep at points remote from the polar stations. Samples were packed in polyethylene bags or special plastic containers. Under stationary conditions, the samples were melted in glass or aluminum containers. The resulting water was filtered using a collapsible funnel through membrane filters (pore size 0.7 μm). The filters were wetted with glycerol and the amount of microparticles was determined in transmitted light at a magnification of 350X.

Polar ice, bottom sediments of the Pacific Ocean, sedimentary rocks, salt deposits were also studied. At the same time, the search for fused microscopic spherical particles, which are quite easily identified among the rest of the dust fractions, proved to be a promising direction.

In 1962, at the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, a Commission on Meteorites and Cosmic Dust was created, headed by Academician V.S. Sobolev, which existed until 1990 and whose creation was initiated by the problem of the Tunguska meteorite. Work on the study of cosmic dust was carried out under the guidance of Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences N.V. Vasilyeva.

When assessing the fallout of cosmic dust, along with other natural plates, peat, composed of sphagnum brown moss according to the methodology of the Tomsk scientist Yu.A. Lvov. This moss is quite widespread in the middle zone of the globe, it receives mineral nutrition only from the atmosphere and has the ability to preserve it in the layer that was superficial when dust fell on it. Layer-by-layer stratification and dating of peat allows one to give a retrospective assessment of its deposition. We studied both spherical particles with a size of 7-100 microns, and the microelement composition of the peat substrate - the functions of the dust contained in it.

The technique for separating cosmic dust from peat is as follows. On the site of a raised sphagnum bog, a site with a flat surface and a peat deposit composed of sphagnum brown moss (Sphagnum fuscum Klingr) is selected. Shrubs are cut from its surface at the level of the moss sod. A pit is laid to a depth of 60 cm, a site of the required size (for example, 10x10 cm) is marked at its side, then a peat column is exposed on two or three sides of it, cut into layers of 3 cm each, which are packed in plastic bags. The upper 6 layers (stripping) are considered together and can serve to determine age characteristics according to the method of E.Ya. Muldiyarova and E.D. Lapshin. Each layer under laboratory conditions is washed through a sieve with a mesh diameter of 250 microns for at least 5 minutes. The humus with mineral particles that has passed through the sieve settles until the sediment completely precipitates, then the sediment is poured into a Petri dish, where it is dried. Packaged in tracing paper, the dry sample is convenient for transportation and for further study. Under appropriate conditions, the sample is ashed in a crucible and a muffle furnace for an hour at a temperature of 500-600 degrees. The ash residue is weighed and either examined under a binocular microscope at a magnification of 56 times to identify spherical particles with a size of 7-100 microns or more, or undergo other types of analysis. Because This moss receives mineral nutrition only from the atmosphere, then its ash component can be a function of the cosmic dust included in its composition.

Thus, studies in the area of \u200b\u200bthe fall of the Tunguska meteorite, remote from sources of technogenic pollution for many hundreds of kilometers, made it possible to estimate the inflow of spherical particles with a size of 7-100 microns and more to the Earth's surface. The upper layers of peat made it possible to estimate the fallout of the global aerosol during the study; layers related to 1908 - the substance of the Tunguska meteorite; the lower (pre-industrial) layers - cosmic dust. In this case, the inflow of space microspherules to the Earth's surface is estimated at (2-4) · 10 3 t / year, and in general, space dust - 1.5 · 10 9 t / year. Analytical methods of analysis were used, in particular neutron activation, to determine the trace element composition of cosmic dust. According to these data, iron (2 · 10 6), cobalt (150), scandium (250) fall out of outer space (t / year) annually on the Earth's surface.

The works of E.M. Kolesnikova et al., Who discovered isotopic anomalies in the peat of the Tunguska meteorite fall area, dating back to 1908 and speaking, on the one hand, in favor of the cometary hypothesis of this phenomenon, and on the other, shedding light on the cometary matter that fell to the Earth's surface.

The most complete review of the problem of the Tunguska meteorite, including its matter, for 2000 should be considered the monograph by V.A. Bronstein. The latest data on the material of the Tunguska meteorite were reported and discussed at the International Conference “100 Years of the Tunguska Phenomenon”, Moscow, June 26-28, 2008. Despite the progress made in the study of cosmic dust, a number of problems still remain unresolved.

Sources of metascientific knowledge about cosmic dust

Along with the data obtained by modern research methods, the information contained in non-scientific sources is of great interest: "Letters of the Mahatmas", the Doctrine of Living Ethics, letters and works of E.I. Roerich (in particular, in her work "The Study of Human Properties", which gives an extensive program of scientific research for many years to come).

So in a letter from Coot Humi in 1882 to the editor of the influential English-language newspaper "Pioneer" A.P. Sinnett (the original of the letter is kept in the British Museum) is given the following data on cosmic dust:

- “High above our earth's surface, the air is saturated and space is filled with magnetic and meteoric dust, which does not even belong to our solar system”;

"The snow, especially in our northern regions, is full of meteoric iron and magnetic particles, deposits of the latter are found even at the bottom of the oceans." “Millions of such meteors and the finest particles reach us every day and every year”;

- “every atmospheric change on Earth and all perturbations come from the combined magnetism” of two large “masses” - the Earth and meteoric dust;

There is "the earth's magnetic attraction of meteoric dust and the direct effect of the latter on sudden temperature changes, especially with regard to heat and cold";

Because "Our earth with all the other planets rushes in space, it receives most of the cosmic dust to its northern hemisphere than to the southern"; "... this explains the quantitative predominance of the continents in the northern hemisphere and the greater abundance of snow and dampness";

- “The heat that the earth receives from the rays of the sun is, to a greater extent, only a third, if not less, of the amount it receives directly from meteors”;

- “Powerful clusters of meteoric matter” in interstellar space lead to a distortion of the observed intensity of starlight and, consequently, to a distortion of distances to stars obtained by photometric means.

A number of these provisions were ahead of the science of that time and were confirmed by subsequent research. So, studies of the twilight glow of the atmosphere, carried out in the 30-50s. XX century, showed that if at altitudes less than 100 km the glow is determined by the scattering of sunlight in a gaseous (air) medium, then at altitudes above 100 km, the dominant role is played by scattering by dust grains. The first observations made with the help of artificial satellites led to the discovery of a dusty shell of the Earth at altitudes of several hundred kilometers, as indicated in the aforementioned letter from Koot Khumi. Of particular interest are data on the distortions of distances to stars obtained by photometric methods. In essence, this was an indication of the presence of interstellar extinction, discovered in 1930 by Trempler, which is rightfully considered one of the most important astronomical discoveries of the 20th century. Taking interstellar extinction into account led to an overestimation of the scale of astronomical distances and, as a consequence, to a change in the scale of the visible Universe.

Some of the provisions of this letter - about the influence of cosmic dust on processes in the atmosphere, in particular on the weather - have not yet found scientific confirmation. Further study is needed here.

Let us turn to one more source of metascientific knowledge - the Teaching of Living Ethics, created by E.I. Roerich and N.K. Roerich in collaboration with the Himalayan Teachers - Mahatmas in the 20-30s of the XX century. The Living Ethics books originally published in Russian have now been translated and published in many languages \u200b\u200bof the world. They pay great attention to scientific problems. In this case, we will be interested in everything related to cosmic dust.

A lot of attention is paid to the problem of cosmic dust, in particular its inflow to the surface of the Earth, in the Teaching of Living Ethics.

“Look out for high places exposed to winds from snowy peaks. At twenty-four thousand feet, special meteoric dust deposits can be observed ”(1927-1929). “Aerolites are not studied enough, and even less attention is paid to cosmic dust on eternal snows and glaciers. Meanwhile, the Cosmic Ocean draws its rhythm on the peaks ”(1930-1931). "Meteoric dust is inaccessible to the eye, but it gives very significant precipitation" (1932-1933). “In the purest place, the purest snow is saturated with earthly and cosmic dust, - this is how space is filled even with rough observation” (1936).

The issues of cosmic dust are also given great attention in the "Cosmological Records" by E.I. Roerich (1940). It should be borne in mind that Helena Roerich closely followed the development of astronomy and was aware of its latest achievements; she critically evaluated some theories of that time (20-30 years of the last century), for example, in the field of cosmology, and her ideas were confirmed in our time. Living Ethics Teachings and Cosmological Records of E.I. Roerich contain a number of provisions on those processes that are associated with the fallout of cosmic dust on the Earth's surface and which can be generalized as follows:

In addition to meteorites, material particles of cosmic dust constantly fall on the Earth, which bring in cosmic matter that carries information about the Far Worlds of outer space;

Cosmic dust changes the composition of soil, snow, natural waters and plants;

This is especially true of the places of occurrence of natural ores, which are not only a kind of magnets attracting cosmic dust, but one should expect some differentiation of it depending on the type of ore: “So iron and other metals attract meteors, especially when ores are in a natural state and not devoid of cosmic magnetism ”;

Much attention in the Teaching of Living Ethics is paid to mountain peaks, which, according to E.I. Roerich "... are the greatest magnetic stations." "... The Cosmic Ocean draws its rhythm on the peaks";

The study of cosmic dust can lead to the discovery of new minerals not yet discovered by modern science, in particular - a metal that has properties that help to store vibrations with the distant worlds of outer space;

When studying cosmic dust, new types of microbes and bacteria can be discovered;

But what is especially important, the Teaching of Living Ethics opens a new page of scientific knowledge - the impact of cosmic dust on living organisms, including on humans and their energies. It can have various effects on the human body and some processes on the physical and, especially, the subtle planes.

This information is beginning to find confirmation in modern scientific research. So in recent years, complex organic compounds have been discovered on cosmic dust particles and some scientists have started talking about space microbes. In this regard, the works on bacterial paleontology carried out at the Institute of Paleontology of the Russian Academy of Sciences are of particular interest. In these works, in addition to terrestrial rocks, meteorites were studied. It is shown that the micro-fossils found in meteorites are traces of the vital activity of microorganisms, some of which are similar to cyanobacteria. In a number of studies, it was possible to experimentally show the positive effect of space matter on plant growth and substantiate the possibility of its effect on the human body.

The authors of the Living Ethics Teachings strongly recommend organizing constant monitoring of the fallout of cosmic dust. And as its natural reservoir to use glacial and snow deposits in the mountains at an altitude of over 7 thousand meters. The Roerichs, living for many years in the Himalayas, dream of creating a scientific station there. In a letter dated October 13, 1930, E.I. Roerich writes: “The station should develop into the City of Knowledge. We wish to give a synthesis of achievements in this City, therefore, all fields of science must subsequently be represented in it ... Study of new cosmic rays, which give humanity new and most valuable energies, possible only at heights, for all the most subtle and most valuable and powerful lies in the purer layers of the atmosphere. Also, are not all meteoric precipitations that are deposited on the snowy peaks and carried into the valleys by mountain streams deserving attention? " ...

Conclusion

The study of cosmic dust has now become an independent field of modern astrophysics and geophysics. This problem is especially relevant, since meteoric dust is a source of cosmic matter and energy, continuously brought to the Earth from outer space and actively affecting geochemical and geophysical processes, as well as exerting a peculiar effect on biological objects, including humans. These processes have hardly been studied yet. In the study of cosmic dust, a number of provisions contained in the sources of metascientific knowledge have not found proper application. Meteoric dust manifests itself in terrestrial conditions not only as a phenomenon of the physical world, but also as matter carrying the energetics of outer space, including worlds of other dimensions and other states of matter. Taking these provisions into account requires the development of a completely new method for studying meteoric dust. But the most important task is still the collection and analysis of cosmic dust in various natural storage facilities.

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33. Kolesnikov E.M. On some probable features of the chemical composition of the Tunguska cosmic explosion of 1908 // Interaction of meteorite matter with the Earth. - Novosibirsk: "Science" Siberian Branch, 1980. - S. 87-102.

34. Kolesnikov EM, Böttger T., Kolesnikova NV, Junge F. Anomalies in the isotopic composition of carbon and nitrogen in peat in the region of the explosion of the Tunguska space body in 1908 // Geochemistry. - 1996. - T. 347. - No. 3. - S. 378-382.

35. Bronstein V.A. Tunguska meteorite: research history. - M .: A.D. Selyanov, 2000 .-- 310 p.

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37. Roerich E.I. Cosmological Records // At the Threshold of a New World. - M .: MCR. Master-Bank, 2000 .-- S. 235 - 290.

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41. Hierarchy. Living Ethics Teaching. - M .: MCR, 1995 .-- P.45

42. The Fiery World. Living Ethics Teaching. - M .: MCR, 1995 .-- Part 1.

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44. Gindilis L.M. Reading the letters of E.I. Roerich: is the Universe finite or infinite? // Culture and Time. - 2007. - No. 2. - P. 49.

45. Roerich E.I. Letters. - M .: ICR, Charitable Foundation. E.I. Roerich, Master-Bank, 1999. - T. 1. - P. 119.

46. \u200b\u200bHeart. Living Ethics Teaching. - M .: MCR. 1995 .-- S. 137, 138.

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48. Bozhokin S.V. Properties of cosmic dust // Soros educational journal. - 2000. - T. 6. - No. 6. - S. 72-77.

49. Gerasimenko L.M., Zhegallo E.A., Zhmur S.I. et al. Bacterial paleontology and studies of carbonaceous chondrites // Paleontological journal. -1999. - No. 4. - P. 103-125.

50. Vasiliev N.V., Kukharskaya L.K., Boyarkina A.P. et al. On the mechanism of plant growth stimulation in the area of \u200b\u200bthe fall of the Tunguska meteorite // Interaction of meteoric matter with the Earth. - Novosibirsk: "Science" Siberian Branch, 1980. - S. 195-202.

It is known from the book Letters of the Mahatmas that even at the end of the 19th century, the Mahatmas made it clear that the cause of climate change lies in the change in the amount of cosmic dust in the upper atmosphere. Stardust is everywhere in outer space, but there are areas with increased dust and some with less. The solar system in its motion crosses both those and others, and this is reflected in the Earth's climate. But how does this happen, what is the mechanism of the effect of this dust on the climate?

This post draws attention to the dust tail, but the image also demonstrates well the real size of the dust "coat" - it is simply huge.

Knowing that the diameter of the Earth is 12 thousand km, we can say that its thickness is on average not less than 2000 km. This "coat" is attracted by the Earth and directly affects the atmosphere, compressing it. As it was said in the answer: “... direct impact the latter to sudden changes in temperature ... "- really direct in the real sense of the word. In the case of a decrease in the mass of cosmic dust in this "coat", when the Earth passes through outer space with a lower concentration of cosmic dust, the compression force decreases and the atmosphere expands, accompanied by its cooling. This is what was implied in the words of the answer: "... that the ice ages, as well as the periods when the temperature is similar to the" Carboniferous age ", are due to the decrease and increase, or rather the expansion of our atmosphere, an expansion that itself owes to the same meteoric presence", those. owes less to the presence of cosmic dust in this "coat".

Another vivid illustration of the existence of this electrified gas and dust "coat" can serve as the well-known electric discharges in the upper atmosphere, going from thunderclouds to the stratosphere and higher. The area of \u200b\u200bthese discharges occupies a height from the upper boundary of thunderclouds, where the blue "jets" originate, to 100-130 km, where giant flashes of red "elves" and "sprites" appear. Two large electrified masses - the Earth and the mass of cosmic dust in the upper atmosphere - exchange these discharges through thunderclouds. In fact, this "coat" in its lower part starts from the upper boundary of cloud formation. Below this boundary, condensation of atmospheric moisture occurs, where cosmic dust particles participate in the creation of condensation nuclei. Further, this dust falls on the earth's surface along with precipitation.

In early 2012, messages on an interesting topic appeared on the Internet. Here is one of them: (Komsomolskaya Pravda, 28 Feb. 2012)

“The NACA satellites have shown: it has become very close to the Earth. Over the past decade - from March 2000 to February 2010 - the height of the cloud layer has been reduced by 1 percent or, in other words, by 30-40 meters. And this decrease is mainly due to the fact that all fewer clouds began to form at high altitudes, infoniac.ru generally says. There they are formed every year, everything is less. By takomu trevozhnomu vyvodu came uchenye of Univerciteta Oklenda (Novaya Zelandiya) proanalizirovav Specifications pervyh 10 years Measuring vycotnocti oblakov, poluchennye mnogouglovym cpektroradiometrom (MISR) c kocmicheckogo apparata NASA Terra.

While we do not know exactly what caused the decrease in the height of the clouds, - admitted the researcher, professor Roger Davies. - But perhaps this happened due to changes in circulation, which leads to the formation of clouds at high altitudes.

Climate controllers warn that if the clouds continue to decrease, this could have an important impact on global climate change. A lower layer of cloudiness can help the Earth to cool down and slow down global heating by providing heat to the space. But he, too, can pretend to have a negative feedback effect, that is, a change caused by global warming. However, until scientists can not give an answer to whether it is possible to say something about the future of our climate, based on these clouds. Although the optimists believe that the 10-year observation period is too short to make such global conclusions. An article about this was published in Geophysical Research Letters. "

It can be assumed that the position of the upper boundary of cloud formation directly depends on the degree of compression of the atmosphere. What scientists from New Zealand discovered may be a consequence of increased compression, and in the future may serve as an indicator of climate change. So, for example, with an increase in the upper boundary of cloud formation, one can draw conclusions about the beginning of a global cooling. At present, their research may indicate that global warming continues.

Warming itself occurs unevenly in some areas of the Earth. There are areas where the average annual temperature rise significantly exceeds the average for the entire planet, reaching 1.5-2.0 ° C. There are also areas where the weather changes even towards a colder snap. However, the average results show that, over a 100-year period, the average annual temperature on Earth has increased by about 0.5 ° C.

The Earth's atmosphere is an open, energy-dissipating system; it absorbs heat from the sun and the earth's surface, and it also radiates heat back to the earth's surface and into outer space. These thermal processes are described by the thermal balance of the Earth. When thermal equilibrium is established, the Earth radiates into space exactly as much heat as it receives from the Sun. This heat balance can be called zero. But the heat balance can be positive when the climate warms and can be negative when the temperature drops. That is, with a positive balance, the Earth absorbs and accumulates more heat than it emits into space. With a negative balance, the opposite is true. At present, the Earth has a clearly positive heat balance. In February 2012, a message appeared on the Internet about the work on this topic by scientists from the United States and France. Here's an excerpt from the post:

"Scientists have redefined the Earth's heat balance

Our planet continues to absorb more energy than it returns to space, researchers from the United States and France have found. And this despite the extremely long and deep last solar minimum, which meant a reduction in the flow of rays that came from our star. A team of scientists led by James Hansen, director of the Goddard Institute for Space Research (GISS), performed the most accurate calculation to date of the Earth's energy balance for the period from 2005 to 2010 inclusive.

It turned out that the planet now absorbs an average of 0.58 watts of excess energy per square meter of surface. Such a current excess of receipts over expenditures. This value is slightly lower than preliminary estimates, but it speaks of a long-term rise in average temperature. (…) Taking into account other terrestrial as well as satellite measurements, Hansen and his colleagues determined that the upper layer of the main oceans absorbs 71% of the indicated excess energy, the Southern Ocean another 12%, the abyssal (zone between 3 and 6 kilometers deep) absorbs 5% , ice - 8% and land - 4%. "

«… the global warming of the last century cannot be blamed on large fluctuations in solar activity. Perhaps, in the future, the influence of the Sun on these ratios will change if the forecast about its deep sleep comes true. But so far, the causes of climate change in the last 50-100 years have to be looked for elsewhere. ... ".

The search, most likely, should be in the change in the average pressure of the atmosphere. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), adopted in the 1920s, sets the pressure to 760 mm. rt. Art.at sea level, at a latitude of 45 ° with an average annual surface temperature of 288K (15 ° C). But now the atmosphere is not the same as it was 90-100 years ago. its parameters have obviously changed. Today's warming atmosphere should have an average annual temperature of 15.5 ° C with new pressure at sea level at the same latitude. The standard model of the earth's atmosphere links temperature and pressure as a function of altitude, where for every 1000 meters of tropospheric altitude from sea level, the temperature drops by 6.5 ° C. It is easy to calculate that there are 76.9 meters of height at 0.5 ° C. But if we take, according to this model, the surface temperature of 15.5 ° C, which we have as a result of global warming, then it will show us 76.9 meters below sea level. This suggests that the old model does not correspond to today's realities. Reference books tell us that at a temperature of 15 ° C in the lower atmosphere, the pressure decreases by 1 mm. rt. Art. with a rise every 11 meters. From here we can find out the pressure drop corresponding to the height difference 76.9 m., and this will be the easiest way to determine the pressure increase that led to global warming.

The increase in pressure will be equal to:

76,9 / 11 = 6,99 mm. rt. Art.

However, we can more accurately determine the pressure that led to warming if we turn to the work of the academician (RANS) of the Institute of Oceanology named after PP Shirshov RAS OG Sorokhtin "Adiabatic theory of the greenhouse effect" This theory strictly scientifically gives a definition of the greenhouse effect of the planetary atmosphere, gives formulas that determine the surface temperature of the Earth and temperature at any level of the troposphere, and also reveals the complete inconsistency of theories about the influence of " greenhouse gases ”on climate warming. This theory is applicable to explain the change in atmospheric temperature depending on the change in mean atmospheric pressure. According to this theory, both the ISA adopted in the 1920s and the current real atmosphere should obey the same formula for determining the temperature at any level of the troposphere.

So, “If the input signal is the so-called blackbody temperature, which characterizes the heating of a body remote from the Sun at the Earth-Sun distance, only due to the absorption of solar radiation ( T bb \u003d 278.8 K \u003d + 5.6 ° C for the Earth), then the average surface temperature T s linearly depends on it ":

Т s \u003d b α ∙ Т bb ∙ р α, (1)

where b - scale factor (if measurements are carried out in physical atmospheres, then for the Earth b \u003d 1.186 atm – 1); T bb \u003d 278.8 K \u003d +5.6 ° C - heating of the Earth's surface only due to absorption of solar radiation; α is the adiabatic index, the average value of which for the humid, IR-absorbing troposphere of the Earth is 0.1905. "

As can be seen from the formula, the temperature T s also depends on the pressure p.

And if we know that the average surface temperature due to global warming increased by 0.5 ° C and is now equal to 288.5 K (15.5 ° C), then we can find out from this formula what pressure at sea level led to this warming.

We transform the equation and find this pressure:

p α \u003d T s : (b α ∙ T bb),

p α \u003d 288.5 : (1,186 0,1905 ∙ 278,8) = 1,001705,

p \u003d 1.008983 atm;

or 102,235.25 Pa;

or 766.84 mm. rt. Art.

From the result obtained, it can be seen that the warming was caused by an increase in the average atmospheric pressure by 6,84 mm. rt. Art., which is quite close to the result obtained above. This is a small value, considering that the weather differences in atmospheric pressure in the range of 30 - 40 mm. rt. Art.a common occurrence in a single area. The pressure difference between a tropical cyclone and a continental anticyclone can reach 175 mm. rt. Art. .

So, a relatively small average annual increase in atmospheric pressure led to a noticeable warming of the climate. This additional compression by external forces indicates the completion of a certain work. And it doesn't matter how much time was spent on this process - 1 hour, 1 year or 1 century. The result of this work is important - an increase in the temperature of the atmosphere, which indicates an increase in its internal energy. And, since the Earth's atmosphere is an open system, the resulting excess of energy must be released into the environment until a new level of heat balance with a new temperature is established. The environment for the atmosphere is the earth's landmass with the ocean and open space. The earth's firmament with the ocean, as noted above, currently "... continues to absorb more energy than it returns to space." But with radiation into space, the situation is different. Radiation radiation of heat into space is characterized by a radiation (effective) temperature T e, under which this planet is visible from space, and which is defined as follows:

Where σ \u003d 5.67. 10 –5 erg / (cm 2 s. K 4) is the Stefan – Boltzmann constant, S - solar constant at the distance of the planet from the Sun, AND - albedo, or reflectivity, of a planet, mainly regulated by its cloud cover. For the earth S \u003d 1.367. 10 6 erg / (cm 2 s), AND ≈ 0.3, therefore T e\u003d 255 K (-18 ° C);

A temperature of 255 K (-18 ° C) corresponds to an altitude of 5000 meters, i.e. the height of intense cloud formation, the height of which, according to scientists from New Zealand, has decreased by 30-40 meters over the past 10 years. Consequently, the area of \u200b\u200ba sphere radiating heat into space decreases when the atmosphere is compressed from the outside, and, hence, the radiation of heat into space also decreases. This factor clearly affects the direction of warming. Further, from formula (2) it is seen that the radiation temperature of the Earth's radiation depends practically only on AND Is the albedo of the Earth. But any increase in surface temperature increases the evaporation of moisture and increases the Earth's cloudiness, and this, in turn, increases the reflectivity of the earth's atmosphere, and hence the albedo of the planet. An increase in the albedo leads to a decrease in the radiation temperature of the Earth's radiation, therefore, to a decrease in the heat flux going into space. It should be noted here that as a result of an increase in albedo, the reflection of solar heat from clouds into space increases and its supply to the earth's surface decreases. But even if the influence of this factor, acting in the opposite direction, fully compensates for the influence of the factor of increasing albedo, then there is also the fact that all excess heat remains on the planet... That is why even a small change in the average atmospheric pressure leads to a noticeable climate change. The increase in atmospheric pressure is also facilitated by the growth of the atmosphere itself due to an increase in the amount of gases introduced with meteoric matter. This is, in general terms, the pattern of global warming from an increase in atmospheric pressure, the initial cause of which lies in the impact of cosmic dust on the upper atmosphere.

As already noted, warming occurs unevenly in certain areas of the Earth. Therefore, somewhere there is no increase in pressure, somewhere a decrease is even noted, and where an increase takes place, it can be explained by the influence of global warming, because temperature and pressure are interdependent in the standard model of the earth's atmosphere. The very same global warming is explained by the increase in the content of man-made "greenhouse gases" in the atmosphere. But in reality this is not the case.

To be convinced of this, let us turn again to the "Adiabatic theory of the greenhouse effect" by academician OG Sorokhtin, where it has been scientifically proven that the so-called "greenhouse gases" have nothing to do with global warming. And that, even if we replace the air atmosphere of the Earth with an atmosphere consisting of carbon dioxide, then this will not lead to warming, but, on the contrary, to some cooling. The only contribution to warming "greenhouse gases" can make an increase in mass to the entire atmosphere and, accordingly, an increase in pressure. But, as it is written in this work:

“According to various estimates, at present, due to the combustion of natural fuel, about 5-7 billion tons of carbon dioxide, or 1.4-1.9 billion tons of pure carbon, is released into the atmosphere, which not only reduces the heat capacity of the atmosphere, but also somewhat increases it total pressure. These factors act in opposite directions, resulting in very little change in the average temperature of the earth's surface. So, for example, with a twofold increase in the concentration of CO 2 in the earth's atmosphere from 0.035 to 0.07% (by volume), which is expected by 2100, the pressure should increase by 15 Pa, which will cause an increase in temperature by about 7.8 . 10 –3 K ".

0.0078 ° C is really very little. This is how science begins to recognize that modern global warming is not affected by fluctuations in solar activity, nor by an increase in the concentration of technogenic "greenhouse" gases in the atmosphere. And the eyes of scientists turn to cosmic dust. This is indicated by the following message from the Internet:

“Is space dust to blame for climate change? (05 April 2012,) (…) A new research program has been launched to find out how much of this dust enters the Earth's atmosphere and how it might affect our climate. It is believed that accurate dust estimation will also help in understanding how particles are transported through different layers of the Earth's atmosphere. Scientists from the University of Leeds have already submitted a project to study the impact of cosmic dust on the earth's atmosphere after receiving a grant of 2.5 million euros from the European Research Council. The project is designed for 5 years of research. The international team consists of 11 scientists in Leeds and 10 research groups in the USA and Germany (…) ”.

An encouraging message. It looks like science is getting closer to discovering the real cause of climate change.

In connection with all of the above, it can be added that in the future, a revision of the basic concepts and physical parameters concerning the Earth's atmosphere is foreseen. The classical definition that atmospheric pressure is created by the gravitational attraction of the air column to the Earth is not entirely correct. Hence, the value of the mass of the atmosphere, calculated from the atmospheric pressure acting on the entire surface of the Earth, also becomes incorrect. Things get much more complicated as An essential component of atmospheric pressure is the compression of the atmosphere by external forces of magnetic and gravitational attraction of the mass of cosmic dust, which saturates the upper layers of the atmosphere.

This additional compression of the Earth's atmosphere has always been, at all times, because there are no areas in outer space free from cosmic dust. And it is thanks to this circumstance that the Earth has enough heat for the development of biological life. As stated in the Mahatma's answer:

“… That the heat that the Earth receives from the rays of the sun is, to the greatest extent, only a third, if not less, of the amount it receives directly from meteors”, i.e. from exposure to meteoric dust.

ust-Kamenogorsk, Kazakhstan, 2013

: It should not be at cosmic speeds, but there is.
If the car is driving along the road and another butts it in the ass, then only a slack will grind its teeth. And if at the same speed the oncoming lane or to the side? There is a difference.
Now, let's say that the same thing is in space, the Earth turns in one direction and the debris of Phaeton or something else there rotates along the way. Then there may be a gentle descent.

I was surprised by the very large number of observations of comets in the 19th century. Here are some statistics:

Clickable

Meteorite with fossilized remains of living organisms. The conclusion is fragments from the planet. Phaeton?

huan_de_vsad in his article Peter the Great medal symbols pointed out a very interesting excerpt from the Writer of 1818, where, among other things, there is a small note about the comet of 1680:

In other words, it was this comet, a certain Whiston, who attributed to the body that caused the Flood described in the Bible. Those. in this theory, the worldwide flood was in 2345 BC. It should be noted that there are a lot of datings associated with the Flood.

This comet was observed from December 1680 to February 1681 (7188 g). It had the greatest brightness in January.

***

5elena4 : “Almost in the middle ... of the sky above Prechistensky Boulevard, surrounded, strewn with stars on all sides, but differing from all by its proximity to the earth, white light and a long, upturned tail, stood a huge bright comet of 1812, the same comet that foreshadowed, as they said, all sorts of horrors and the end of the world. "

L. Tolstoy on behalf of Pierre Bezukhov traveling through Moscow ("War and Peace"):

At the entrance to Arbat Square, a huge space of the starry dark sky opened up to Pierre's eyes. Almost in the middle of this sky above Prechistensky Boulevard, surrounded, strewn with stars on all sides, but differing from everyone by its proximity to the earth, white light, and a long, upturned tail, stood a huge bright comet of 1812, the same comet that foreshadowed , as they said, all sorts of horrors and the end of the world. But in Pierre, this bright star with a long, radiant tail did not arouse any terrible feeling. Opposite, Pierre gazed joyfully, eyes wet with tears, at this bright star, which, as if, with inexpressible speed flying immeasurable spaces along a parabolic line, suddenly, like an arrow piercing the ground, slammed into one place she had chosen, in the black sky, and stopped, energetically raising her tail up, glowing and playing with her white light between countless other, twinkling stars. It seemed to Pierre that this star fully corresponded to what was in his soul, which blossomed into a new life, softened and encouraged.

L. N. Tolstoy. "War and Peace". Volume II. Part V. Chapter XXII

The comet hung over Eurasia for 290 days and is considered the largest comet in history.

Vicki calls it "the comet of 1811" because it passed its perihelion that year. And the next one was very clearly visible from the Earth. Everyone mentions especially the excellent grapes and wine of that year. The harvest is associated with a comet. "The fault of the comet splashed the current" - from "Eugene Onegin".

In the work of V. S. Pikul "To each his own":

“Champagne surprised Russians with the poverty of its inhabitants and the wealth of wine cellars. Napoleon was still preparing a campaign to Moscow, when the world was stunned by the appearance of the brightest comet, under the sign of which Champagne in 1811 gave an unprecedented harvest of large juicy grapes. Now the effervescent "vin de la comete" Russian Cossacks; They took them away in buckets and gave them to drink to the exhausted horses - to cheer up: - Lakai, ailment! Paris is not far away ”...
***

This is an engraving dated 1857, that is, the artist depicted not the impression of impending danger, but the danger itself. And it seems to me that the picture shows a cataclysm. Presented are those catastrophic events on Earth that were associated with the appearance of comets. Napoleon's soldiers took the appearance of this comet as a bad sign. Besides, she really hung in the sky for an ugly long time. According to some reports, up to one and a half years.

It turned out that the diameter of the comet's head - the nucleus, together with the surrounding diffuse foggy atmosphere - the coma - is larger than the diameter of the Sun (comet 1811 I still remains the largest of all known). The length of its tail reached 176 million kilometers. The famous English astronomer W. Herschel describes the shape of the tail as "... an inverted empty cone of yellowish color, which is in sharp contrast to the bluish-greenish tone of the head." To some observers, the comet's color seemed reddish, especially at the end of the third week of October, when the comet was very bright and shone in the sky all night.

At the same time, North America was shaking with a powerful earthquake in the area of \u200b\u200bthe city of New Madrid. As I understand it, this is practically the center of the continent. Experts still don't understand what triggered that earthquake. According to one version, it happened due to the gradual rise of the continent, which has relieved itself after the melting of glaciers (?!)
***

Very interesting information in this post: The real cause of the flood of 1824 in St. Petersburg ... It can be assumed that such winds in 1824. were caused by a fall somewhere in a desert area, for example, Africa, a large body or bodies, asteroids.
***

A. Stepanenko ( chispa1707 ) there is information that mass insanities in the Middle Ages in Europe were caused by poisonous water from the dust falling from the comet's tail to the Earth. Available at this video
Or in this article
***

Similar facts also indirectly testify to the opacity of the atmosphere and the onset of cold weather in Europe:

The 17th century is marked as the Little Ice Age, and there were also temperate periods with good summers and periods of intense heat.
However, winter gets a lot of attention in the book. During the years 1691 to 1698, winters were harsh and hungry for Scandinavia. Until 1800, hunger was the common man's greatest fear. The year 1709 was an exceptionally fierce winter. It was the beauty of a cold wave. The temperature dropped to the extreme. Fahrenheit experimented with thermometers and Krückius took all temperature measurements in Delft. "Holland suffered badly. But especially Germany and France were struck by the cold, with temperatures up to -30 degrees and the population suffered the worst famine since the Middle Ages.
..........
Bayusman also says that he wondered if he would consider 1550 to be the beginning of the Little Ice Age. In the end, he decided that it happened in 1430. A number of cold winters begin this year. After some fluctuations in temperature, the Little Ice Age begins from the end of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century, ending around 1800.
***

So could soil fall out of space, which turned into clay? This information will try to answer this question:

During the day, 400 tons of cosmic dust and 10 tons of meteorite matter fall to Earth from space. So the short guide "Alpha and Omega" published in Tallinn in 1991 reports. Considering that the surface area of \u200b\u200bthe Earth is 511 million sq. Km, of which 361 million sq. Km. - this is the surface of the oceans, we do not notice it.

According to other sources:
Until now, scientists did not know the exact amount of dust that falls to Earth. It was believed that every day from 400 kg to 100 tons of this space debris falls on our planet. In recent studies, scientists have been able to calculate the amount of sodium in our atmosphere and have obtained accurate data. Since the amount of sodium in the atmosphere is equivalent to the amount of dust from space, it turned out that every day the Earth receives about 60 tons of additional pollution.

That is, this process is present, but at the present time the fallout occurs in minimal quantities, insufficient to bring the buildings.
***

In favor of the theory of panspermia, according to scientists from Cardiff, the analysis of samples of material from comet Wild-2, collected by the Stardust spacecraft, speaks. He showed the presence of a number of complex hydrocarbon molecules in them. In addition, the study of the composition of Comet Tempel-1 using the Deep Impact probe showed the presence of a mixture of organic compounds and clay in it. It is believed that the latter could serve as a catalyst for the formation of complex organic compounds from simple hydrocarbons.

Clay is a likely catalyst for the transformation of simple organic molecules into complex biopolymers in the early Earth. However, now Wickramasing and his colleagues argue that the total volume of clay environment on comets, favorable for the emergence of life, is many times greater than those of our own planet. (publication in the international astrobiological journal International Journal of Astrobiology).

According to new estimates, on the early Earth, the favorable environment was limited to a volume of about 10 thousand cubic kilometers, and a single comet 20 kilometers across could provide a "cradle" for life about one tenth of its volume. If we take into account the contents of all comets in the solar system (and there are billions of them), then the size of a suitable medium will be 1012 times larger than that of the Earth.

Of course, not all scientists agree with the conclusions of Wickramasing's group. For example, the American comet expert Michael Mumma from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC, Maryland) believes that there is no need to talk about the presence of clay particles in all comets without exception (in samples of the material of comet Wild-2 (Wild 2), delivered to Earth by NASA's Stardust probe in January 2006, they, for example, do not exist).

The following notes appear regularly in the press:

Thousands of drivers of the Zemplinsky region, bordering the Transcarpathian region, on Thursday morning found their cars with a thin film of yellow dust in parking lots. We are talking about the districts of the cities of Snina, Humennoe, Trebisov, Medzilaborce, Michalovce and Stropkov Vranovsky.
This dust and sand got into the clouds of eastern Slovakia, says spokesman for the Hydrometeorological Institute of Slovakia Ivan Garčar. Strong winds in western Libya and Egypt, he said, began on Tuesday 28 May. Large amounts of dust and sand have entered the air. Such air currents prevailed over the Mediterranean Sea, near southern Italy and northwest Greece.
The next day, one part penetrated deep into the Balkans (for example, into Serbia) and northern Hungary, while the second part of various streams of dust from Greece returned to Turkey.
Such meteorological situations of transfer of sand and dust from the Sahara are very rare in Europe, so there is no need to say that this phenomenon can become annual.

Sand falls are not uncommon:

Residents of many regions of Crimea noted today an unusual phenomenon: heavy rain was accompanied by small grains of sand of various colors - from gray to red. As it turned out, this is a consequence of dust storms in the Sahara desert, which brought the southern cyclone. It rained with sand, in particular, over Simferopol, Sevastopol, the Black Sea region.

In the Saratov region and the city itself there was an unusual snowfall: in some areas, residents noticed yellow-brown precipitation. Explanation of meteorologists: “Nothing supernatural is happening. Now the weather on the territory of our region is due to the influence of a cyclone that came from the southwest on the territory of our region. The air mass comes to us from North Africa through the Mediterranean and Black Seas, saturated with moisture. The air mass, dusty from the Sahara regions, received a portion of sand, and, having been enriched with moisture, now it waters not only the European territory of Russia, but also the Crimean peninsula. "

We add that colored snow has already caused a stir in several cities of Russia. For example, in 2007, residents of the Omsk region saw unusual orange precipitation. At their request, an examination was carried out, which showed that the snow is safe, it is simply that the concentration of iron in it is exceeded, which is what caused the unusual color. In the same winter, yellowish snow was seen in the Tyumen region, and soon gray snow fell in Gorno-Altaysk. The analyzes of the Altai snow revealed the presence of earth dust in the sediments. The experts explained that this is a consequence of dust storms in Kazakhstan.
Note that the snow can also be pink: for example, in 2006, snow the color of a ripe watermelon fell in Colorado. Eyewitnesses claimed that it also tasted like a watermelon. This reddish snow is found high in the mountains and in the polar regions of the Earth, and its color is due to the massive reproduction of one of the species of Chlamydomonas algae.

Red rains
They are mentioned by ancient scholars and writers, for example, Homer, Plutarch, and medieval ones, such as Al-Gazen. The most famous rains of this kind fell:
1803, February - in Italy;
1813, February - in Calabria;
1838, April - in Algeria;
1842, March - in Greece;
1852, March - in Lyon;
1869, March - in Sicily;
1870, February - in Rome;
June 1887 - at Fontainebleau.

They are also observed outside Europe, for example, on the Cape Verde islands, on the Cape of Good Hope, etc. Blood rains occur from an admixture of red dust, consisting of the smallest red organisms, to ordinary rains. The homeland of this dust is Africa, where it rises to great heights by strong winds and is carried by the upper air currents to Europe. Hence its other name - "trade wind dust".

Black rains
They appear due to admixture of volcanic or cosmic dust to ordinary rains. On November 9, 1819, a black rain fell in Montreal, Canada. A similar case was also observed on August 14, 1888 at the Cape of Good Hope.

White (milky) rains
Observed in places where chalk rocks are found. Chalk dust is carried upward and stains the raindrops in a white milky color.
***

Everything is explained by dust storms and the raised masses of sand and dust into the atmosphere. The only question is: why are the places where sand is so selective? And how is this sand transported thousands of kilometers without falling out on the way from the places of its rise? Even if a dust storm lifted tons of sand into the sky, then it should begin to fall out immediately as this vortex or front moves.
Or maybe the fallout of sandy, dusty soils (which we observe in the idea of \u200b\u200bsandy loam and clay covering the cultural layers of the 19th century) continues? But only in incomparably smaller quantities? And earlier there were moments when the fallout was so large-scale and fast that it covered the territory by meters. Then, under the rains, this dust turned into clay, sandy loam. And where there was a lot of rain, this mass turned into mudflows. Why is this not in history? Maybe because people considered this phenomenon an ordinary one? The same dust storm. Now there is television, the Internet, and many newspapers. Information becomes public quickly. It used to be more difficult with this. The publicity of the phenomena and events did not have such an informational scale.
While this is as a version, tk. there is no direct evidence. But maybe some of the readers will offer more information?
***

Cosmic dust, its composition and properties are little known to a person not associated with the study of extraterrestrial space. However, this phenomenon leaves its traces on our planet! Let us consider in more detail where it comes from and how it affects life on Earth.

Space dust concept

Cosmic dust on Earth is most often found in certain layers of the ocean floor, ice sheets of the polar regions of the planet, peat deposits, inaccessible places in the desert and meteorite craters. The size of this substance is less than 200 nm, which makes its study problematic.

Usually the concept of cosmic dust includes the demarcation into interstellar and interplanetary varieties. However, all this is very conditional. The most convenient option for studying such a phenomenon is considered to be the study of dust from space at the borders of the solar system or beyond.

The reason for such a problematic approach to the study of the object is that the properties of extraterrestrial dust change dramatically when it is near a star like the Sun.

Theories of the origin of cosmic dust

Streams of cosmic dust constantly attack the Earth's surface. The question arises where this substance comes from. Its origins give rise to many discussions among experts in this field.

There are such theories of the formation of cosmic dust:

• Decay of celestial bodies... Some scientists believe that cosmic dust is nothing more than the result of the destruction of asteroids, comets and meteorites.
• Remnants of a protoplanetary cloud... There is a version according to which cosmic dust is attributed to microparticles of a protoplanetary cloud. However, this assumption raises some doubts due to the fragility of the finely dispersed substance.
• Explosion in the stars... As a result of this process, according to some experts, a powerful release of energy and gas occurs, which leads to the formation of cosmic dust.
• Residual phenomena after the formation of new planets... The so-called construction waste has become the basis for the generation of dust.

According to some studies, a certain part of the constituent of cosmic dust arose before the formation of the solar system, which makes this substance even more interesting for further study. This is worth paying attention to when evaluating and analyzing such an extraterrestrial phenomenon.

The main types of space dust

There is currently no specific classification of the types of cosmic dust. It is possible to distinguish between subspecies by visual characteristics and the location of these microparticles.

Consider seven groups of cosmic dust in the atmosphere, differing in external indicators:

1. Irregular gray debris. These are residual phenomena after the collision of meteorites, comets and asteroids no larger than 100-200 nm in size.
2. Particles of slag and ash-like formation. Such objects are difficult to identify solely by external signs, because they have undergone changes after passing through the Earth's atmosphere.
3. The grains are round, which are similar in parameters to black sand. Outwardly, they resemble magnetite powder (magnetic iron ore).
4. Small black circles with a characteristic luster. Their diameter does not exceed 20 nm, which makes their study a painstaking task.
5. Larger balls of the same color with a rough surface. Their size reaches 100 nm and allows a detailed study of their composition.
6. Balls of a certain color with a predominance of black and white tones with gas inclusions. These microparticles of space origin are composed of a silicate base.
7. Balls of a dissimilar structure made of glass and metal. Such elements are characterized by microscopic dimensions within 20 nm.

According to the astronomical location, 5 groups of cosmic dust are distinguished:

• Dust in intergalactic space. This view can distort the dimensions of the distances in certain calculations and can change the color of space objects.
• Formations within the Galaxy. The space within these limits is always filled with dust from the destruction of cosmic bodies.
• A substance concentrated between the stars. It is most interesting due to the presence of a shell and a hard core.
• Dust located near a specific planet. It is usually found in the ring system of a celestial body.
• Dust clouds around the stars. They circle in the orbital path of the star itself, reflecting its light and creating a nebula.

Three groups by the total specific gravity of microparticles look like this:

1. Metal band. Representatives of this subspecies have a specific gravity of more than five grams per cubic centimeter, and their base consists mainly of iron.
2. Silicate-based group. The base is transparent glass with a specific gravity of approximately three grams per cubic centimeter.
3. Mixed group. The very name of this association indicates the presence of both glass and iron in the structure of microparticles. The base also includes magnetic elements.

Four groups according to the similarity of the internal structure of cosmic dust microparticles:

• Hollow-filled spherules. This species is often found in places where meteorites fall.
• Spherules of metal formation. This subspecies has a core of cobalt and nickel, as well as a shell that has oxidized.
• Balls of uniform addition. Such grains have an oxidized shell.
• Balls with a silicate base. The presence of gas inclusions gives them the appearance of ordinary slags, and sometimes foam.

It should be remembered that these classifications are very arbitrary, but they serve as a certain reference point for designating the types of dust from space.

Composition and characteristics of the components of cosmic dust

Let's take a closer look at what cosmic dust consists of. There is a certain problem in determining the composition of these microparticles. Unlike gaseous substances, solids have a continuous spectrum with relatively few bands that are blurred. As a result, it becomes difficult to identify cosmic dust particles.

The composition of cosmic dust can be considered using the example of the main models of this substance. These include the following subspecies:

1. Ice particles, the structure of which includes a core with a refractory characteristic. The shell of such a model consists of lightweight elements. Large particles contain atoms with elements of magnetic properties.
2. Model MRN, the composition of which is determined by the presence of silicate and graphite inclusions.
3. Oxide cosmic dust, which is based on the diatomic oxides of magnesium, iron, calcium and silicon.

General classification by chemical composition of cosmic dust:

• Balls with a metallic formation nature. Such microparticles include an element such as nickel.
• Metal balls with iron and nickel free.
• Silicone based circles.
• Irregularly shaped nickel-iron balls.

More specifically, you can consider the composition of cosmic dust on the example found in oceanic silt, sedimentary rocks and glaciers. Their formula will differ little from one another. Findings during the study of the seabed are balls with a silicate and metal base with the presence of chemical elements such as nickel and cobalt. Also in the depths of the water element, microparticles with the presence of aluminum, silicon and magnesium were found.

The soil is fertile for the presence of cosmic material. A particularly large number of spherules were found in places where meteorites fell. They were based on nickel and iron, as well as all kinds of minerals such as troilite, cohenite, steatite and other components.

Glaciers also lurk in their clumps of aliens from space in the form of dust. Silicate, iron and nickel form the basis of the found spherules. All mined particles were classified into 10 clearly delineated groups.

Difficulties in determining the composition of the studied object and differentiating it from impurities of terrestrial origin leave this question open for further research.

Influence of cosmic dust on vital processes

The influence of this substance has not been fully studied by specialists, which gives great opportunities in terms of further activities in this direction. At a certain altitude, with the help of rockets, a specific belt consisting of cosmic dust was discovered. This gives grounds to assert that such extraterrestrial matter affects some of the processes taking place on planet Earth.

The effect of cosmic dust on the upper atmosphere

Recent studies indicate that the amount of cosmic dust can affect the change in the upper atmosphere. This process is very significant, because it leads to certain fluctuations in the climatic characteristics of the planet Earth.

An enormous amount of dust from asteroid collisions fills the space around our planet. Its quantity reaches almost 200 tons per day, which, according to scientists, cannot but leave its consequences.

The most susceptible to this attack, according to the same experts, is the northern hemisphere, whose climate is prone to cold temperatures and dampness.

The impact of space dust on cloud formation and climate change has not yet been adequately studied. New research in this area is raising more and more questions, the answers to which have not yet been received.

Effect of dust from space on the transformation of oceanic silt

Irradiation of cosmic dust by the solar wind leads to the fact that these particles fall on the Earth. Statistics show that the lightest of the three isotopes of helium in huge quantities gets through dust particles from space into oceanic silt.

The absorption of elements from space by minerals of ferromanganese origin served as the basis for the formation of unique ore formations on the ocean floor.

At the moment, the amount of manganese in the regions close to the polar circle is limited. All this is due to the fact that cosmic dust does not enter the oceans in those areas due to ice sheets.

Influence of space dust on the composition of the World Ocean water

If we consider the glaciers of Antarctica, they are striking in the number of meteorite remnants found in them and the presence of cosmic dust, which is a hundred times higher than the usual background.

An excessively high concentration of the same helium-3, valuable metals in the form of cobalt, platinum and nickel, makes it possible to assert with confidence the fact of the interference of cosmic dust in the composition of the ice sheet. At the same time, the substance of extraterrestrial origin remains in its original form and not diluted by the waters of the ocean, which in itself is a unique phenomenon.

According to some scientists, the amount of cosmic dust in such peculiar ice sheets over the past million years has been in the order of several hundred trillion meteorite formations. During the warming period, these covers melt and carry elements of cosmic dust into the World Ocean.

Watch a video about cosmic dust:

This cosmic neoplasm and its influence on some factors of the life of our planet have been little studied. It is important to remember that a substance is capable of influencing climate changes, the structure of the ocean floor and the concentration of certain substances in the waters of the oceans. Photos of cosmic dust indicate how many more mysteries these microparticles are concealing in themselves. All this makes learning like this interesting and relevant!

By mass, solid dust particles make up an insignificant part of the Universe, but it is thanks to interstellar dust that stars, planets and people who study space and simply admire the stars have appeared and continue to appear. What kind of substance is this - cosmic dust? What compels people to equip expeditions into space worth the annual budget of a small state in the hope of only, and not in the firm confidence, to extract and bring to Earth even a tiny handful of interstellar dust?

Between stars and planets

Dust in astronomy is called small, fractions of a micron, solid particles flying in outer space. Space dust is often conventionally divided into interplanetary and interstellar dust, although, obviously, interstellar entry into interplanetary space is not prohibited. It is not easy to find it there, among the "local" dust, the probability is low, and its properties near the Sun can change significantly. Now, if you fly away to the borders of the solar system, there the probability of catching real interstellar dust is very high. The ideal option is to go beyond the solar system altogether.

The dust is interplanetary, at least in comparative proximity to the Earth - the matter is quite studied. Filling the entire space of the solar system and concentrated in the plane of its equator, it was born mainly as a result of accidental collisions of asteroids and the destruction of comets that approached the Sun. The composition of the dust, in fact, does not differ from the composition of meteorites falling to the Earth: it is very interesting to study it, and there are still a lot of discoveries in this area, but there seems to be no special intrigue here. But thanks to this particular dust, in good weather in the west immediately after sunset or in the east before sunrise, you can admire the pale cone of light above the horizon. This is the so-called zodiacal - sunlight scattered by small cosmic dust particles.

Much more interesting is interstellar dust. Its distinctive feature is the presence of a solid core and shell. The core appears to be composed primarily of carbon, silicon, and metals. And the envelope is predominantly of gaseous elements frozen on the surface of the core, crystallized in the conditions of "deep freezing" of interstellar space, and this is about 10 kelvin, hydrogen and oxygen. However, there are also more complex admixtures of molecules in it. These are ammonia, methane and even polyatomic organic molecules that stick to a speck of dust or are formed on its surface during wanderings. Some of these substances, of course, fly away from its surface, for example, under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, but this process is reversible - some fly away, others freeze or are synthesized.

Now, in the space between the stars or near them, they have already been found, of course, not by chemical, but by physical, that is, spectroscopic, methods: water, oxides of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and silicon, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, acetylene, organic acids such as formic and acetic, ethyl and methyl alcohols, benzene, naphthalene. They even found an amino acid - glycine!

It would be interesting to catch and study the interstellar dust that penetrates into the solar system and, for sure, falls to Earth. The problem of "catching" it is not easy, because few interstellar dust particles manage to preserve their ice "coat" in the sun's rays, especially in the Earth's atmosphere. Large ones get too hot - their space speed cannot be quickly extinguished, and dust particles "burn". Small ones, however, plan in the atmosphere for years, preserving part of the shell, but then the problem arises of finding them and identifying them.

There is one more very intriguing detail. It concerns the dust, the nuclei of which are composed of carbon. Carbon synthesized in the cores of stars and escaping into space, for example, from the atmosphere of aging (such as red giants) stars, flying out into interstellar space, cools and condenses - in much the same way as after a hot day, fog from cooled water vapor gathers in the lowlands. Depending on the crystallization conditions, layered graphite structures, diamond crystals (just imagine - whole clouds of tiny diamonds!) And even hollow balls of carbon atoms (fullerenes) can be obtained. And in them, perhaps, like in a safe or a container, particles of the atmosphere of a very ancient star are stored. Finding such specks of dust would be a huge success.

Where is cosmic dust found?

It must be said that the very concept of the cosmic vacuum as something completely empty has long remained only a poetic metaphor. In fact, the entire space of the Universe, both between stars and between galaxies, is filled with matter, streams of elementary particles, radiation and fields - magnetic, electric and gravitational. All that can, relatively speaking, be touched is gas, dust and plasma, the contribution of which to the total mass of the Universe, according to various estimates, is only about 1-2% with an average density of about 10-24 g / cm 3. There is more gas in the space, almost 99%. This is mainly hydrogen (up to 77.4%) and helium (21%), the rest account for less than two percent of the mass. And then there is dust - its mass is almost a hundred times less than gas.

Although sometimes the void in interstellar and intergalactic spaces is almost ideal: sometimes there is 1 liter of space per atom of matter! There is no such vacuum neither in terrestrial laboratories, nor within the solar system. For comparison, we can give the following example: in 1 cm 3 of the air we breathe, there are approximately 30,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules.

This matter is distributed very unevenly in interstellar space. Most of the interstellar gas and dust forms a layer of gas and dust near the plane of symmetry of the Galaxy disk. Its thickness in our Galaxy is several hundred light years. Most of the gas and dust in its spiral branches (arms) and core are concentrated mainly in giant molecular clouds ranging in size from 5 to 50 parsecs (16-160 light years) and weighing tens of thousands and even millions of solar masses. But even inside these clouds, matter is also distributed inhomogeneously. In the main volume of the cloud, the so-called fur coat, mainly of molecular hydrogen, the density of particles is about 100 pieces per 1 cm 3. In the seals inside the cloud, it reaches tens of thousands of particles in 1 cm 3, and in the cores of these seals - in general, millions of particles in 1 cm 3. It is this unevenness in the distribution of matter in the Universe that is due to the existence of a star, a planet and, ultimately, ourselves. Because it is in molecular clouds, dense and relatively cold, that stars are born.

Interestingly, the higher the density of the cloud, the more diverse it is in composition. In this case, there is a correspondence between the density and temperature of the cloud (or its individual parts) and those substances whose molecules are found there. On the one hand, it is convenient for studying clouds: observing their individual components in different spectral ranges from characteristic lines of the spectrum, for example CO, OH or NH 3, one can "look" into one or another part of it. On the other hand, data on the composition of the cloud allows you to learn a lot about the processes taking place in it.

In addition, in interstellar space, judging by the spectra, there are also substances whose existence in terrestrial conditions is simply impossible. These are ions and radicals. Their chemical activity is so high that they react immediately on Earth. And in the rarefied cold space of space, they live long and completely free.

In general, gas in interstellar space is not only atomic. Where it is colder, no more than 50 kelvin, the atoms manage to stick together to form molecules. However, a large mass of interstellar gas is still in an atomic state. This is mainly hydrogen, its neutral form was discovered relatively recently - in 1951. As you know, it emits radio waves 21 cm long (frequency 1 420 MHz), the intensity of which was used to determine how much of it is in the Galaxy. By the way, it is distributed inhomogeneously in the space between the stars. In clouds of atomic hydrogen, its concentration reaches several atoms per 1 cm 3, but between clouds it is orders of magnitude lower.

Finally, gas exists in the form of ions near hot stars. The powerful ultraviolet radiation heats up and ionizes the gas, and it starts to glow. That is why areas with a high concentration of hot gas, with a temperature of about 10,000 K, look like glowing clouds. They are called light gaseous nebulae.

And in any nebula, more or less, there is interstellar dust. Despite the fact that nebulae are conventionally divided into dust and gas, there is dust in both. And in any case, it is dust that apparently helps the stars to form in the bowels of nebulae.

Foggy objects

Nebulae are perhaps the most beautiful of all space objects. True, dark nebulae in the visible range look just like black blots in the sky - they are best observed against the background of the Milky Way. But in other ranges of electromagnetic waves, for example infrared, they are visible very well - and the pictures are very unusual.

Nebulae are called accumulations of gas and dust isolated in space, connected by gravitational forces or external pressure. Their mass can be from 0.1 to 10,000 solar masses, and their size - from 1 to 10 parsecs.

At first, astronomers were annoyed by the nebulae. Until the middle of the 19th century, the discovered nebulae were viewed as an annoying obstacle that prevented the observation of stars and the search for new comets. In 1714, Englishman Edmond Halley, whose name the famous comet bears, even made a "black list" of six nebulae so that they would not mislead "comet catchers", and the Frenchman Charles Messier expanded this list to 103 objects. Fortunately, Sir William Herschel, a musician in love with astronomy, and his sister and son became interested in nebulae. Observing the sky with the help of telescopes built with their own hands, they left behind a catalog of nebulae and star clusters, numbering information about 5,079 space objects!

The Herschels practically exhausted the possibilities of optical telescopes of those years. However, the invention of photography and the long exposure time made it possible to find very weakly luminous objects. A little later, spectral methods of analysis, observations in various ranges of electromagnetic waves made it possible in the future not only to detect many new nebulae, but also to determine their structure and properties.

The interstellar nebula looks bright in two cases: either it is so hot that its gas itself glows, such nebulae are called emission; or the nebula itself is cold, but its dust scatters the light of a nearby bright star - this is a reflection nebula.

Dark nebulae are also interstellar clusters of gas and dust. But unlike light gaseous nebulae, sometimes visible even with strong binoculars or a telescope, such as the Orion nebula, dark nebulae do not emit light, but absorb it. When light from a star passes through such nebulae, dust can completely absorb it, converting it into infrared radiation invisible to the eye. Therefore, such nebulae look like starless dips in the sky. V. Herschel called them “holes in the sky”. Perhaps the most spectacular of these is the Horsehead Nebula.

However, dust particles may not completely absorb the light of stars, but only partially scatter it, and selectively. The fact is that the size of the particles of interstellar dust is close to the wavelength of blue light, so it is more scattered and absorbed, and the "red" part of the stars' light reaches us better. Incidentally, this is a good way to judge the size of dust particles by how they attenuate light of different wavelengths.

Star from the cloud

The reasons for the appearance of stars are not precisely established - there are only models that more or less reliably explain the experimental data. In addition, the ways of formation, properties and further fate of stars are very diverse and depend on many factors. However, there is an established concept, or rather, the most elaborated hypothesis, the essence of which, in its most general outline, is that stars are formed from interstellar gas in regions with increased density of matter, that is, in the depths of interstellar clouds. Dust as a material could be ignored, but its role in the formation of stars is enormous.

This happens (in the most primitive version, for a single star), apparently, like this. First, a protostellar cloud condenses from the interstellar medium, which may be due to gravitational instability, but the reasons may be different and are not yet fully understood. One way or another, it contracts and attracts matter from the surrounding space. The temperature and pressure in its center rise until the molecules in the center of this contracting ball of gas begin to disintegrate into atoms and then into ions. This process cools the gas, and the pressure inside the core drops sharply. The core is compressed, and a shock wave propagates inside the cloud, throwing off its outer layers. A protostar is formed, which continues to shrink under the action of gravitational forces until, at its center, thermonuclear fusion reactions begin - the conversion of hydrogen into helium. The compression continues for some time, until the forces of gravitational compression are balanced by the forces of gas and radiant pressure.

It is clear that the mass of a star formed is always less than the mass of the nebula that "generated" it. Part of the substance that did not have time to fall on the nucleus, during this process, is "swept away" by the shock wave, radiation and particle flux simply into the surrounding space.

The formation of stars and stellar systems is influenced by many factors, including the magnetic field, which often contributes to the "rupture" of a protostellar cloud into two, less often three fragments, each of which is compressed under the influence of gravity into its own protostar. This is how, for example, many binary star systems arise - two stars that revolve around a common center of mass and move in space as a single whole.

As the stars "age", nuclear fuel gradually burns out, and the faster, the larger the star. In this case, the hydrogen cycle of reactions is replaced by helium, then as a result of nuclear fusion reactions, increasingly heavy chemical elements are formed, up to iron. In the end, the nucleus, which does not receive more energy from thermonuclear reactions, sharply decreases in size, loses its stability, and its substance, as it were, falls on itself. A powerful explosion occurs, during which matter can heat up to billions of degrees, and interactions between nuclei lead to the formation of new chemical elements, up to the heaviest ones. The explosion is accompanied by a sharp release of energy and the release of matter. A star explodes - this process is called a supernova explosion. Ultimately, the star, depending on its mass, will turn into a neutron star or black hole.

Probably, this is how it actually happens. In any case, there is no doubt that young, that is, hot, stars and their clusters are mostly located in nebulae, that is, in regions with an increased density of gas and dust. This is clearly seen in photographs taken by telescopes in different wavelength ranges.

Of course, this is nothing more than the roughest exposition of the sequence of events. For us, two points are fundamentally important. First, what is the role of dust in star formation? And the second - where, in fact, does it come from?

Universal refrigerant

In the total mass of cosmic matter, dust itself, that is, atoms of carbon, silicon and some other elements combined into solid particles, are so small that they, in any case, as a building material for stars, it would seem, can not be taken into account. However, in fact, their role is great - it is they who cool the hot interstellar gas, turning it into that very cold dense cloud from which stars are then obtained.

The fact is that the interstellar gas itself cannot cool down. The electronic structure of the hydrogen atom is such that excess energy, if any, can be given off by emitting light in the visible and ultraviolet regions of the spectrum, but not in the infrared region. Figuratively speaking, hydrogen does not know how to radiate heat. To cool down properly, he needs a "refrigerator", the role of which is played by particles of interstellar dust.

During a collision with dust particles at high speed - unlike heavier and slower dust particles, gas molecules fly quickly - they lose speed and their kinetic energy is transferred to the dust particle. It also heats up and gives off this excess heat to the surrounding space, including in the form of infrared radiation, while it cools down. So, taking on the heat of interstellar molecules, dust acts as a kind of radiator, cooling a cloud of gas. There is not much of it in terms of mass - about 1% of the mass of the entire substance of the cloud, but this is enough to remove excess heat over millions of years.

When the temperature of the cloud drops, so does the pressure, the cloud condenses and stars can already be born from it. The remnants of the material from which the star was born are, in turn, the source for the formation of planets. They already include dust particles, and in larger quantities. Because, having been born, the star heats up and accelerates all the gas around it, and the dust remains flying nearby. After all, it is capable of cooling and is attracted to the new star much more strongly than individual gas molecules. In the end, a dust cloud appears next to the newborn star, and dust-laden gas at the periphery.

Gas planets such as Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are born there. Well, solid planets appear near the star. We have it Mars, Earth, Venus and Mercury. It turns out a fairly clear division into two zones: gas planets and solid ones. So the Earth was largely made from interstellar dust particles. Metallic dust particles became part of the planet's core, and now the Earth has a huge iron core.

The mystery of the young universe

If a galaxy has formed, then where does the dust come from - in principle, scientists understand. Its most significant sources are novae and supernovae, which lose part of their mass, "throwing" the shell into the surrounding space. In addition, dust is born in the expanding atmosphere of the red giants, from where it is literally swept away by radiation pressure. In their cool, by the standards of stars, atmosphere (about 2.5 - 3 thousand Kelvin) there are quite a lot of relatively complex molecules.

But here is a riddle that has not yet been solved. It has always been believed that dust is a product of the evolution of stars. In other words, stars should be born, exist for some time, grow old and, say, produce dust in the last supernova explosion. But what came first - an egg or a chicken? The first dust required for the birth of a star, or the first star, which for some reason was born without the help of dust, aged, exploded, forming the very first dust.

What happened in the beginning? After all, when the Big Bang happened 14 billion years ago, there were only hydrogen and helium in the Universe, no other elements! It was then from them that the first galaxies, huge clouds began to emerge, and in them were the first stars that had to go through a long life path. Thermonuclear reactions in the cores of stars were supposed to "weld" more complex chemical elements, to convert hydrogen and helium into carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and so on, and after that the star should have thrown all this into space, exploding or gradually shedding its envelope. Then this mass had to cool, cool down and, finally, turn into dust. But already 2 billion years after the Big Bang, in the earliest galaxies, there was dust! With the help of telescopes, it was found in galaxies that are 12 billion light years distant from ours. At the same time, 2 billion years is too short a period for the full life cycle of a star: during this time, most stars do not have time to grow old. Where did the dust come from in the young Galaxy, if there should be nothing but hydrogen and helium, is a mystery.

A speck of dust - a reactor

Not only does interstellar dust act as a kind of universal coolant, perhaps it is thanks to dust that complex molecules appear in space.

The fact is that the surface of a dust particle can simultaneously serve as a reactor in which molecules are formed from atoms and as a catalyst for their synthesis reactions. After all, the probability that many atoms of different elements will collide at one point at once, and even interact with each other at a temperature slightly above absolute zero, is unimaginably small. On the other hand, the likelihood that a speck of dust will consistently collide in flight with various atoms or molecules, especially inside a cold dense cloud, is quite high. Actually, this is what happens - this is how a shell of interstellar dust grains is formed from the atoms and molecules that have been frozen on it.

Atoms are side by side on a solid surface. Migrating over the surface of a grain of dust in search of the most energetically favorable position, atoms meet and, being in close proximity, get the opportunity to react with each other. Of course, very slowly - in accordance with the temperature of the dust particle. The surface of particles, especially those containing metal in the core, can exhibit catalyst properties. Chemists on Earth are well aware that the most effective catalysts are just particles a fraction of a micron in size, on which molecules collect and then enter into reactions, which under normal conditions are completely "indifferent" to each other. Apparently, this is how molecular hydrogen is formed: its atoms "stick" to a speck of dust, and then fly away from it - but already in pairs, in the form of molecules.

It is very possible that small interstellar dust grains, retaining in their shells a few organic molecules, including the simplest amino acids, and brought the first "seeds of life" to the Earth about 4 billion years ago. This, of course, is nothing more than a beautiful hypothesis. But in her favor is the fact that an amino acid, glycine, was found in the composition of cold gas and dust clouds. Maybe there are others, just so far the capabilities of telescopes do not allow them to be detected.

Dust hunt

It is possible, of course, to study the properties of interstellar dust at a distance - with the help of telescopes and other instruments located on Earth or on its satellites. But it is much more tempting to catch interstellar dust particles, and then study in detail, find out - not theoretically, but practically, what they consist of, how they are arranged. There are two options. You can get to the depths of space, collect interstellar dust there, bring it to Earth and analyze in every possible way. Or you can try to fly out of the solar system and analyze the dust on the way on board the spacecraft, sending the received data to Earth.

The first attempt to bring samples of interstellar dust, and in general the matter of the interstellar medium, was made by NASA several years ago. The spacecraft was equipped with special traps - collectors for collecting interstellar dust and particles of the cosmic wind. To catch the dust particles without losing their shell, the traps were filled with a special substance - the so-called airgel. This very light foamy substance (the composition of which is a trade secret) resembles jelly. Once in it, the dust particles get stuck, and then, like in any trap, the lid slams shut to be open already on Earth.

This project was called Stardust - Stardust. His program is grandiose. After launching in February 1999, the equipment on board should eventually collect samples of interstellar dust and, separately, dust in the immediate vicinity of Comet Wild-2, which flew near Earth in February last year. Now, with containers filled with this precious cargo, the ship is flying home to land on January 15, 2006 in Utah, near Salt Lake City (USA). It was then that astronomers would finally see with their own eyes (with the help of a microscope, of course) those very dust particles, the models of the composition and structure of which they had already predicted.

And in August 2001, Genesis flew for samples of matter from deep space. This NASA project was aimed primarily at capturing solar wind particles. After spending 1,127 days in outer space, during which it flew about 32 million km, the spacecraft returned and dropped a capsule with the obtained samples - traps with ions, particles of the solar wind - onto the Earth. Alas, a misfortune happened - the parachute did not open, and the capsule fell into the ground with a full swing. And it crashed. Of course, the wreckage was collected and carefully examined. However, in March 2005, at a conference in Houston, program participant Don Barnetti said that four collectors with solar wind particles were not affected, and scientists are actively studying their contents, 0.4 mg of the captured solar wind, in Houston.

However, now NASA is preparing a third project, even more ambitious. This will be the Interstellar Probe space mission. This time the spacecraft will move away at a distance of 200 AU. e. from the Earth (a. e. - the distance from the Earth to the Sun). This ship will never return, but it will all be "stuffed" with a wide variety of equipment, including for the analysis of interstellar dust samples. If all goes well, interstellar dust particles from deep space will finally be captured, photographed and analyzed - automatically, right on board the spacecraft.

Formation of young stars

1. A giant galactic molecular cloud with a size of 100 parsecs, a mass of 100,000 suns, a temperature of 50 K, and a density of 10 2 particles / cm 3. Inside this cloud there are large-scale condensations - diffuse gas and dust nebulae (1-10 pc, 10,000 suns, 20 K, 103 particles / cm 3) and small condensations - gas and dust nebulae (up to 1pc, 100-1,000 suns, 20 K, 10 4 particles / cm 3). Inside the latter, there are just clots of globules with a size of 0.1 pc, a mass of 1-10 suns and a density of 10-10 6 particles / cm 3, where new stars are formed

2. The birth of a star inside a gas and dust cloud

3. The new star with its radiation and stellar wind accelerates the surrounding gas from itself

4. A young star enters space, clean and free of gas and dust, pushing aside the nebula that gave rise to it

Stages of the "embryonic" development of a star equal in mass to the Sun

5. The origin of a gravitationally unstable cloud of 2,000,000 suns, with a temperature of about 15 K and an initial density of 10 -19 g / cm 3

6. After several hundred thousand years, this cloud forms a core with a temperature of about 200 K and a size of 100 suns, its mass is still only 0.05 of the solar

7. At this stage, the core with a temperature of up to 2,000 K is sharply compressed due to hydrogen ionization and simultaneously heats up to 20,000 K, the speed of the fall of matter onto a growing star reaches 100 km / s

8. A protostar the size of two suns with a center temperature of 2x10 5 K and a surface temperature of 3x10 3 K

9. The last stage of the pre-evolution of the star is slow compression, during which the isotopes of lithium and beryllium are burned out. Only after the temperature rises to 6x10 6 K, thermonuclear reactions of the synthesis of helium from hydrogen start in the interior of the star. The total duration of the nucleation cycle of a star like our Sun is 50 million years, after which such a star can safely burn for billions of years

Olga Maksimenko, candidate of chemical sciences