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Age periodization of childhood. Periodization of age development general approaches to the problem of periodization



PERIODIZATION OF AGE DEVELOPMENT

General approaches to the problem of periodization.

There are two different perspectives on the child's development process. According to one of them, this process continuous, according to another - discrete.

According to continuous development theory - development goes on without stopping, not accelerating or slowing down, therefore there are no clear boundaries separating one stage of development from another.

According to discrete development theory - development is uneven, now accelerating, then slowing down, and this gives rise to the selection of stages or stages in

Development that is qualitatively different from each other. At each stage, there is a main, leading factor that determines the development process at this stage.

Periodization child development by external criterion.

Periodizations of this type are based on external, but connected with the very process of development of the criterion. An example is the periodization created by biogenetic principle (Stern periodization), or later periodization based on stages of education and trainingchildren (periodization by R. Zazzo, A. V. Petrovsky).

V. Stern's periodization.

V. Stern is one of the supporters of the theory of recapitulation, which transferred it to developmental psychology biogenetic law Haeckel. According to this position, ontogeny in a short and condensed form repeats phylogeny. Therefore, Stern presents the process of the child's individual development as a repetition of the main stages of biological evolution and stages of the cultural and historical development of mankind.

According to V. Stern, in the first months of the infancy, a child with reflexive and impulsive behavior that has not yet been understood is at the stage of a mammal. In the second half of the year, thanks to the development of grasping objects and imitation, he reaches the stage of the highest mammal - the monkey. Later, having mastered the vertical gait and speech, the child reaches the initial stages of the human state. In the first five years of playing and tales, he stands at the level of primitive peoples. Starting from entering school, the child assimilates human culture. In the first school years, children's development, according to Stern, corresponds to the development of man in the ancient and Old Testament world. Middle school age bears the features of fanaticism of Christian culture, Stern calls puberty the age of enlightenment, and only in the period of maturity does a person rise to the level of the culture of the New Age.

Periodization by R. Zazzo.

Another example is the periodization of Rene Zazzo. In it, the stages of childhood coincide with the steps systems of education and training of children. After the stage of early childhood (up to 3 years), the stage of preschool age (3-6 years) begins, the main content of which is upbringing in a family or preschool... This is followed by the stage of the initial school education (6-12 years old), at which the child acquires basic intellectual skills; stage of study in

High school (12-16 years old) when he gets general education; and later -

Stage of higher or university education.

Since development and upbringing are interrelated, and the structure of education has been created on the basis of a large practical experience, the boundaries of the periods established according to the pedagogical principle almost coincide with the turning points in children's development.

Periodization A.V. Petrovsky.

In the periodization of Artur Vladimirovich Petrovsky, various social groups with which the child interacts as he grows up act as an external criterion that determines the process of child development.

The formation of the child's personality is determined, according to Petrovsky, by the peculiarities of the child's relationship with the members reference group.The reference group is the most significant for the child in comparison with the rest; he accepts precisely its values, moral norms and forms of behavior.

At each age stage, the child is included in a new social group, which becomes a reference for him. First it is a family, then a kindergarten group, a school class and informal teenagers' associations. Any such group has its own activities and a special style of communication. The activity-mediated relationship of the child with the group, according to Petrovsky, is the factor that participates in the formation of the child's personality.

Periodization of child development according to an internal criterion.

In this group of periodizations, not external, but internal criterion.This criterion becomes any one side of development,for example, the development of bone tissue in P.P. Blonsky, the development of child sexuality in Z. Freud, the development of moral consciousness in L. Kolberg.

Periodization P.P. Blonsky.

Pavel Petrovich Blonsky chose an objective, easily observable sign associated with the essential features of the constitution of a growing organism - the appearance and change of teeth. Childhood is therefore divided into three eras: toothless childhood (from birth to 8 months), childhood of milk teeth (up to about 6.5 years), and childhood of permanent teeth (before the appearance of wisdom teeth).

Periodization of Z. Freud.

Sigmund Freud considered the unconscious, saturated with sexual energy, to be the main engine of human behavior. Sexual development, according to Freud, determines the development of all aspects of the personality and can serve as a criterion age periodization.

Stages of development of child sexuality determined, according to Freud, by the displacement of erogenous zones - those areas of the body, the stimulation of which causes pleasure.

Oral stage. At the oral stage (up to 1 year), the erogenous zone -

Mucous membrane of the mouth and lips. The child enjoys sucking milk, and in the absence of food - his own finger or some object. Since absolutely all the baby's desires cannot be immediately satisfied, the first restrictions appear, and besides the unconscious, instinctive beginning of the personality, called by 3. Freud "It", the second instance develops -

"I". Personality traits such as gluttony, greed, demanding

Consistency, dissatisfaction with everything offered.

Anal stage. At the anal stage (1-3 years), the erogenous zone is displaced into the intestinal mucosa. At this time, the child is taught to be neat, there are many requirements and prohibitions, as a result of which a third instance begins to form in the child's personality - "Super-I" as the bearer of moral and ethical norms, internal censorship, and conscience. Accuracy, punctuality, stubbornness, aggressiveness, secrecy, hoarding and some other traits develop.

Phallic stage. The phallic stage (3-5 years) characterizes the highest stage of child sexuality. The genitals become the leading erogenous zone. If until now childish sexuality was directed at oneself, now children are beginning to experience sexual attachment to adults, boys to their mother (Oedipus complex), girls to their father (Electra complex). This is the time of the most stringent prohibitions and intensive formation of the "Super-I". New personality traits are born - self-observation, prudence, etc.

Latent stage. The latent stage (5-12 years) temporarily interrupts the child's sexual development. The drives emanating from "It" are well controlled. Children's sexual experiences are repressed, and the child's interests are directed towards communication with friends, schooling, etc.

Genitalbnaya stage. The genital stage (12-18 years) corresponds to the actual sexual development of the child. All erogenous zones are united, and a desire for normal sexual intercourse appears. Biological origin

- “It” - increases its activity, and the personality of a teenager has to fight his aggressive impulses, using the mechanisms of psychological defense.

L. Kohlberg's periodization.

An example of private periodization, reflecting certain aspects of child development, are the ideas of Lawrence Kohlberg about the formation of the moral consciousness of a child.

A consistent progressive process, highlighting 6 stages of development,

Uniting in three levels.

First - premoral levelb. For a child, moral norms are something external; they follow the rules established by adults for purely selfish reasons. He is initially punishment-oriented and behaves “well” to avoid it (stage 1). Then he begins to focus on encouragement, expecting to receive praise or some other reward for his correct actions (stage 2).

Second level - conventional morality (convention - agreement, agreement).The source of moral precepts for the child remains external. But he already seeks to behave in a certain way out of the need for approval, in maintaining good relations with people who are significant to him. An orientation in one's behavior towards justifying expectations and approving others is characteristic of stage 3, and towards authority - for stage 4. This determines the instability of the child's behavior, dependence on external influences.

Third level - autonomous moralb. Moral norms and principles become the property of the individual, i.e. internal. Actions are determined not by external pressure or authority, but by their own conscience: "I stand on that and I cannot do otherwise." First, there appears an orientation towards the principles of social well-being, democratic laws, obligations assumed before society (stage 5), then - towards universal human ethical principles (stage 6).

All preschoolers and the majority of seven-year-olds (about 70%) are at a pre-moral level of development. This lower level of development of moral consciousness persists in some children and later - in 30% at 10 years old and 10% at

Many children by the age of 13 solve moral problems at the second level, they are inherent in conventional morality. The development of a higher level of moral consciousness is associated with the development of intelligence: conscious moral principles cannot appear before adolescence, when logical thinking is formed.

Periodizations based on one feature are subjective: the authors arbitrarily choose one of the many aspects of development. In addition, they do not take into account the change in the role of the selected trait in the general development of the child throughout childhood, and the meaning of any trait changes with the transition from age to age.

Periodization of child development

by a set of internal criteria.

In the third group of periodizations, an attempt was made to distinguish periods mental development child based essential features of this development.These are the periodization of Eric Erikson, L.S.Vygotsky and D.B. Elkonin. They use three criteria - social developmental situation, leading activity and central age-related neoplasm.

Periodization of E. Erickson.

Eric Erikson is a follower of 3. Freud, who expanded the psychoanalytic theory. He was able to go beyond it because he began to consider the development of the child in a wider system of social relations.

Basic concepts of Erickson's theory.One of the central concepts of Erickson's theory is identity personalityand. The personality develops through inclusion in various social communities (nation, social class, professional group, etc.). Identity (social identity) determines the personal value system, ideals, life plans, needs, social roles with appropriate forms of behavior.

Identity is formed in adolescence, this is a characteristic

A mature enough personality. Until that time, the child has to go through a series of identifications - identifying himself with his parents; boys or girls (gender identity), etc. This process is determined by the upbringing of the child, since from the very birth of the child, the parents, and then the wider social environment, attach him to their social community, group, pass on to the child the worldview peculiar to it.

Another important point of Erickson's theory is crisis developmenti . Crises are inherent in all age stages; they are “turning points”, moments of choice between progress and regression. At every age, personality neoplasms acquired by a child can be positive, associated with the progressive development of the personality, and negative, causing negative changes in development, its regression.

Stages of personality development. Erickson identified several stages of personality development.

1- i stage. At the first stage of development, corresponding infancy, arises trust or distrust in the world. With progressive personality development, the child “chooses” a trusting attitude. It manifests itself in light feeding, deep sleep, relaxation internal organs, normal bowel function. A child who has confidence in the world, without much anxiety and anger, suffers the disappearance from his mother's field of vision: he

Receives from the mother not only milk and the care he needs, it is connected with her and

"Nourishment" by the world of forms, colors, sounds, caresses, smiles.

At this time, the child, as it were, "absorbs" the image of the mother (the mechanism of introjection appears). This is the first step in the formation of identity

Developing personality.

2- i'm a stage. The second stage corresponds early age. The child's capabilities sharply increase, he begins to walk and defend his independence, the feeling of independence.

Parents limit the child's desire to demand,

Appropriate, destroy when he tests his strength. Parental demands and constraints create the basis for negative feelings shame and

doubts. The child feels the "eyes of the world" watching him with condemnation, and seeks to make the world not look at him or wants to become invisible himself. But

This is impossible, and the child has “ inner eyes the world "- shame for their mistakes. If adults are too demanding, often blame and punish the child, he becomes constantly alert,

Stiffness, lack of communication. If the child's desire for independence is not suppressed, a relationship is established between the ability to cooperate with others and insist on one's own, between freedom of expression and its

Reasonable limitation.

3- i stage. At the third stage, coinciding with preschool age,the child actively learns the world around him, simulates the relationships of adults in the game, quickly learns everything, acquires new responsibilities. Added to independence initiative. When a child's behavior becomes aggressive, initiative is limited, feelings of guilt and anxiety appear; thus, new internal instances are laid - conscience and moral responsibility for their actions, thoughts and desires. Adults should not overload the child's conscience. Excessive disapproval, punishment for minor offenses and mistakes cause a constant feeling of self guilt, fear of punishment for secret thoughts, vindictiveness. Initiative slows down, develops passivity.

At this age stage occurs gender identification, and the child learns a certain form of behavior, male or female.

4- i'm a stage. Junior school age - prepubertal, i.e. prior to puberty. At this time, the fourth stage unfolds, associated with the upbringing of industriousness in children, the need to master new knowledge and skills. Comprehension of the basics of work and social experience enables the child to gain recognition from others and acquire a sense of competence. If the achievements are small, he acutely experiences his ineptitude, inability, disadvantage among

peers and feels doomed to be mediocre. Instead

Feelings of competence formed a feeling inferiority.

Initial period school education is also the beginning professional identification, feeling connected with representatives of certain professions.

5- i stage. Senior adolescence and early adolescence is the fifth stage of personality development, the period of the deepest crisis. Childhood comes to an end, the completion of this stage of life leads to the formation identity. All previous identifications of the child are combined; new ones are added to them, as the grown-up child is included in new social groups and acquires other ideas about himself. Integral personality identity, trust in the world, independence, initiative and competence allow a young man to solve the problem of self-determination, choice of life path.

When one cannot realize oneself and one's place in the world, there is diffuseness of identity. It is associated with an infantile desire not to enter adulthood for as long as possible, with a state of anxiety, a sense of isolation and emptiness.

Periodization of L.S. Vygotsky

Basic concepts of Vygotsky's theory.For Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, development is, first of all, the emergence of something new. Development stages are characterized by age newinaniyamand, those. qualities or

Properties that were not previously in finished form. The source of development, according to Vygotsky, is the social environment. The child's interaction with his social environment, which educates and educates him, determines the emergence of age-related neoplasms.

Vygotsky introduces the concept « social situation of rasvitia "- age-specific relationship between the child and the social environment. The environment becomes completely different when the child moves from one stage of age to the next.

The social situation of development changes at the very beginning of the age period. By the end of the period, neoplasms appear, among which a special place is central new wayinane which is most important for development in the next stage.

The laws of child development.L.S. Vygotsky established four basic laws of child development.

1- th law. The first one is cyclical development. Rise periods,

Intensive development is followed by periods of slowing down, attenuation. Such cycles

development is characteristic of individual mental functions (memory, speech,

Intellect, etc.) and for the development of the child's psyche as a whole.

2- thsandton. The second law is unevenness development. Different aspects of the personality, including mental functions, develop unevenly. Functional differentiation begins in early childhood. First, the main functions are distinguished and developed, first of all, perception, then more complex ones. At an early age, perception dominates, in preschool - memory, in primary school - thinking.

3- th law. The third feature is "Metamorphosis" in child development. Development is not limited to quantitative changes, it is a chain of qualitative changes, transformations of one form into another. A child does not look like a small adult who knows little and knows little and gradually acquires the necessary experience. The child's psyche is unique at each age stage, it is qualitatively different from what it was before, and what will be later.

4- th law. The fourth feature is a combination of evolutionary processes and involution in the development of the child. Processes " reverse development"As if woven into the course of evolution. What developed at the previous stage dies out or is transformed. For example, a child who has learned to speak stops babbling. Have junior student preschool interests disappear, some features of thinking inherent in him earlier. If the involutionary processes are delayed, infantilism is observed: the child, passing into a new age, retains the old childish traits.

Dynamics of age development.Having determined the general laws of the development of the child's psyche, L.S. Vygotsky also examines the dynamics of transitions from one age to another. At different stages, changes in the child's psyche can occur slowly and gradually, or they can - quickly and abruptly. Accordingly, stable and crisis stages of development are distinguished.

For stable period a smooth course of the development process is characteristic, without sharp shifts and changes in the personality of the child. Minor changes that occur over a long time are usually invisible to others. But they accumulate and at the end of the period give a qualitative leap in development: age-related neoplasms appear. Only by comparing the beginning and the end of a stable period, one can imagine the enormous path that the child went through in his development.

Stable periods make up most of childhood. They usually last for several years. And age-related neoplasms that form so slowly and for a long time turn out to be stable, are fixed in the structure of the personality.

In addition to stable ones, there are creesoriginal periods development. IN developmental psychology there is no consensus about crises, their place and role in

mental development of the child. Some psychologists believe that child development

Should be harmonious, crisis-free. Crises are not normal

"Painful" phenomenon, the result of wrong education. Another part of psychologists argues that the presence of crises in development is natural. Moreover, according to some ideas, a child who has not really experienced a crisis will not fully develop further.

Vygotsky attached great importance to crises and considered the alternation of stable and crisis periods as the law of child development.

Crises, in contrast to stable periods, do not last long, several months, with an unfavorable combination of circumstances, stretching up to a year or even two years. These are brief but tumultuous stages during which significant developmental shifts occur.

In periods of crisis, the main contradictions are aggravated: on the one hand, between the increased needs of the child and his still disabilities, on the other hand, between the new needs of the child and the previously established relationships with adults. Now these and some other contradictions are often viewed as the driving forces of mental development.

Periods of child development. Crisis and stable periods of development alternate. Therefore, the age periodization of L.S. Vygotsky has the following form: crisis of birth - infancy (2 months-1 year) - crisis

1 year - early childhood (1-3 years) - crisis 3 years - preschool age (3-7

Years) - crisis 7 years - school age (8-12 years) - crisis 13 years -

Puberty (14-17 years old) - crisis 17 years.

Elkonin's periodization

Daniil Borisovich Elkonin developed the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky on child development.

Leading activities.Elkonin views the child as a person who actively learns the world around him - the world of objects and human relations. These systems of relations are mastered by the child in activities of various types. Among the types of leading activities, Elkonin distinguishes two groups.

IN first group includes activities that orient the child to norms of relations between people... This is the direct emotional communication of the infant, the role play of the preschooler and the intimate and personal communication of the teenager. They differ significantly from each other in content, but they represent activities of the same type, dealing with the system of relations "child

Adult".

The second group constitute the leading activities, thanks to which they assimilate methods of action with objects: subject-manipulative activity of a young child, learning activities junior schoolchildren and educational and professional activities of a senior student. Activities of the second type deal with the child-object relationship system.

The mechanism of age-related development.In the activity of the first type, the child's motivational-need sphere develops, in the activity of the second type, the operational and technical capabilities of the child are formed, i.e. intellectual and cognitive sphere. These two lines form a single process of personality development, but at each age stage one of them predominantly develops. In infancy, the development of the motivational sphere outstrips the development of the intellectual sphere, in the next, early age, the motivational sphere lags behind, and intelligence develops at a faster pace, etc.

According to Elkonin, each age is characterized by its own social situation development; leading activities, in which the motivational-need or intellectual sphere of the personality is mainly developing; age-related neoplasmsthat are formed at the end of the period, among them the central one stands out, the most significant for subsequent development. Crises - turning points in a child's development serve as age boundaries.

Periodization of child development.Periodization D.B. Elkonin is the most common in Russian psychology. According to Elkonin's periodization, the process of child development as a whole can be divided into stages (larger temporary formations), which include periods of child development.

Stages of child developmenti. Childhood, spanning the period from birth to graduation, is categorized by age into the following three stages:

preschool childhood (from birth to 6-7 years old);

junior school age (from 6-7 to 10-11 years old, from the first to the fourth-

Fifth grades of the school);

middle and senior school age (from 10-11 to 16-17 years old, from the fifth to the eleventh grade of the school).

Periods of child developmenti. The whole process of child development in general can be divided into seven periods:

1. Infancy: from birth to one year of age.

2. Early childhood: from one year of life to three years.

3. Junior and middle preschool age: from three to four to five years.

4. Senior preschool age: from four to five to six to seven years.

6. Teenage years:ten-eleven to thirteen-

Fourteen years old.

7. Early adolescence: thirteen-fourteen to sixteen-

Seventeen years old.

Each of these age periods has its own characteristics, requires its own style of communication with children, the use of special techniques and methods of teaching and upbringing.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD

Periodization of intellectual development according to Piaget

In the studies of Jean Piaget and the Geneva psychological school he created, a qualitative uniqueness is shown children's thinking, and traced how the child's thinking gradually changes its character throughout childhood.

Piaget studied the development of visual-effective and visual-figurative thinking in children.

Factors in the development of intelligence. The three main factors influencing the development of a child's intelligence are, according to Piaget, maturation, experience and the action of the social environment, in particular education and upbringing.

Until 7-8 years old, the child's interaction with the world of things and people obeys

The laws biological adaptation.At a certain level of development, social factors are added to biological factors, thanks to which the child develops norms of thinking and behavior. This is a rather high and late level: only after a turning point (about 7-8 years) does social life begin to play a progressive role in the development of intelligence. The child is socialized gradually.

Periods of intellectual development according to Piaget.The child's intellectual development goes through a number of periods, the order of which always remains unchanged. J. Piaget identified four periods of the intellectual development of children:

Sensomotor period, from birth to 18-24 months.

Preoperative period, from 18-24 months to 7 years.

The period of specific operations, from 7 years to 12 years.

The period of formal operations, after 12 years.

Sensorimotor period. The sensorimotor period covers the first two years of a child's life. At this time, speech is not developed and there are no representations, and behavior is based on the coordination of perception and movement (hence

the name "sensorimotor"). The sensorimotor period, in turn, includes

Several stages:

Reflex hardening stage,

The stage of primary circular reactions,

The stage of secondary circular reactions,

The stage of practical intelligence, the stage of tertiary circular reactions, the stage of internalization of action patterns.

Once born, a child has innate reflexes. Some of them, such as the sucking reflex, can change. After some exercise, the child sucks better than on the first day, then begins to suck not only while eating, but also in between - his fingers, any objects that touched his mouth. This is the stage reflex exercises. As a result of the reflex exercise, the first skills.

At the second stage, the child turns his head in the direction of the noise, traces the movement of the object with his gaze, and tries to grab the toy. The skill is based on primary circular reactions - repetitive actions. The child repeats the same action over and over again (say, pulling the cord) for the sake of the process itself. Such actions are supported by the child's own activity, which gives him pleasure.

Secondary circular reactions appear in the third stage, when the child is no longer focused on his own activity, but on the changes caused by his actions. The action is repeated in order to prolong the interesting experience. The child shakes the rattle for a long time in order to prolong the sound that interests him, conducts along the crib bars with all the objects that are in his hands, etc.

Fourth stage - the beginning practical intelligence. Action patterns formed at the previous stage are combined into a single whole and used to achieve the goal. When a random change in an action gives an unexpected effect - a new impression - the child repeats it and reinforces a new scheme of action.

At the fifth stage, tertiary circular reactions: the child is already deliberately changing the actions to see what results this will lead to. He is actively experimenting.

The sixth stage begins internalization of schemes of actions. If a earlier child performed various external actions in order to achieve the goal, tried and made mistakes, now he can already combine schemes of actions in his mind and suddenly come to the right decision. For example, a girl, holding objects in both hands, cannot open the door and, reaching for the door handle,

stops. She puts objects on the floor, but noticing that the opening

The door will hit them, shift them to another place.

By the end of the sensorimotor stage of development, the child becomes a subject,

Capable of elementary symbolic actions.

Preoperative period. An internal action plan has been formed for about 2 years. This is the end of the sensorimotor period, and the child enters a new period - preoperative.

The main characteristic of the preoperative stage is the beginning of the use of symbols, including words. At this stage, it is still very difficult for the child to imagine how others perceive what he himself observes and sees.

He successfully solves problems in a specific situation, but cannot cope with them in the case when the solution needs to be expressed in an abstract, verbal form. The difficulties that the child faces in this case,

Due to the lack of development of his speech.

Representative intelligencetypical for children at the preoperative stage - it is thinking through representations. A strong figurative beginning with insufficient development of verbal thinking leads to a kind of children's logic. At the stage preoperative views the child is not capable of proving, reasoning. The so-called Piaget phenomena are a prime example of this.

Preschoolers were shown two clay balls and, making sure that the children considered them the same, before their very eyes, they changed the shape of one ball -

They rolled it into a "sausage". Answering the question whether the amount of clay in the ball and in the sausage is the same, the children said that it is not the same: there is more in the sausage because it is longer. In a similar problem with the amount of liquid, children

The water poured into two glasses was evaluated as the same. But when they poured water from one glass to another, narrower and higher, and the water level in this vessel rose, they believed that there was more water in it. The child has

There is no principle of conservation of the amount of matter. He, without reasoning,

It focuses on the external, "conspicuous" signs of objects.

The stage of preoperative representations ends with the emergence of an understanding of the conservation of the amount of matter, the fact that during transformations, some properties of objects remain unchanged, while others change. Piaget's phenomena disappear, and children of 7-8 years old, solving Piaget's problems, give the right answers.

Period of specific operationth. At the stage of specific operations, children can already provide logical explanations for the actions performed, are able to move from one point of view to another, and become more objective in their assessments. Having passed any difficult path in space, a seven-year-old child is able to remember it, point out and learn, moreover, go back and

repeat if necessary. But to depict him graphically on paper he is like

The rule is, it can't yet. An eight-year-old child is already able to do this.

This level of intellectual development is called the stage of concrete operations because the child can use concepts here only by linking and referring them to concrete objects, and not as concepts in abstract logical sense the words. Logical operations need support for clarity, cannot be performed in a hypothetical plan (therefore they are called specific).

The child discovers the ability to perform flexible and reversible operations performed in accordance with logical rules. Operation -the central concept of the theory of J. Piaget. An operation is a reversible action. Most paired mathematical operations are such reversible operations. The essence of the child's intellectual development is mastery of operations. Children come to an intuitive understanding of two important logical principles that are expressed by relationships:

If a A \u003d B and B \u003d C, then A \u003d C; A + B \u003d B + A

Children easily cope with conservation tasks (Piaget's phenomena). The experiment consists of dissolving sugar in a glass of water. The child is asked about the preservation of the solute, its weight and volume. Children up to 7-8 years old dissolved sugar is usually considered destroyed, and even its taste, in the child's opinion, disappears. At about the age of about 7-8 years, sugar is already considered to retain its substance in the form of very small particles, but has neither weight nor volume (naive, pre-experimental discovery of atomism). Around the age of 9-10, children state , that each grain of sugar retains its weight, and the total weight of all elementary sugar particles is equivalent to the weight of sugar before it is dissolved. At the age of 11-12, the same applies to volume: the child predicts that after the sugar has melted, the water level in the glass will be higher than its original height.

Another important characteristic of this stage of intellectual development is the ability to rank objects according to some measurable attribute, for example, by weight or size. In Piaget's theory, this ability is called serialization. Let us trace, for example, the process of age-related development of a child using such an intellectual operation as serialization. On initial stage the smallest children, while serializing, claim that all the objects offered to them (for example, sticks) are the same. In the older stage, children divide objects into two categories: large and small, without further ordering. At the next stage of their development, children already talk about large, medium and small objects. At the next stage, the child builds the classification empirically, through trial and error, but is not able to immediately make it infallible. Finally, at the last stage, he discovers the method of serialization: first he chooses the largest of the sticks, puts it

on the table. Then he looks for the largest of the rest. And so on. In this,

At the last stage, he does not hesitate to correctly build the series, and the construction he created presupposes reversible relations, that is, he understands that the element

"A" in the series is simultaneously less than all previous elements and more than all subsequent ones.

Thus, at the stage of specific operations, between the ages of 7 and 12, children are able to arrange objects according to various criteria, for example, by height or by weight. The child also already understands that many terms expressing relationships: less, shorter, lighter, higher, etc., characterize not absolute, but relative properties of objects, that is, their qualities that are manifested in these objects only in relation other objects.

Children of this age are able to combine objects into classes, distinguish subclasses from them, denoting the allocated classes and subclasses with words. However,

Children under the age of 12 cannot yet reason using abstract concepts, rely in their reasoning on assumptions or imaginary events.

Period of formal operationsth. The last, highest period of intellectual development - the period formal operations.The adolescent is freed from a specific attachment to objects given in the field of perception, and acquires the ability to think in the same way as an adult.

At the stage of formal operations, which, starting at the age of 12, continues throughout a person's life, the individual assimilates concepts. A characteristic special

The benignity of this stage is the ability to think logically, using abstract concepts, the ability to perform direct and reverse operations in the mind (reasoning), the ability to formulate and test assumptions

Hypothetical. The adolescent views judgments as hypotheses from which all kinds of consequences can be derived; his thinking becomes hypothetical-deductive.

Some contemporary critics of Piaget believe that he underestimated the level of intellectual development of the preschooler. Piaget's critics argued that the stages identified by Piaget indicate stages of speech, not intellectual development. A child may know , understand, but not be able to explain their understanding in a way that is typical of an adult. It turned out, for example, that if you do not rely on the child's speech statements when assessing his intellect, then children of 4-5 years old can demonstrate an understanding of the principle of conservation of matter when changing the shape and location of objects.

J. Bruner changed the course of one of J. Piaget's experiments. The children were offered a problem with glasses of water. They first compared the amount of water

in two vessels and found that it is "the same". Then the vessels were covered with a screen and the children were asked whether the amount of water would change if it was poured from one glass into another, wider one. Most children 4-5 years old said that the same amount of water would remain. At the third stage of the experiment, water was poured from one glass behind the screen and the screen was removed. Now the children saw that the water level in the new wide glass was lower than in the first one, and most children already believed that there was less liquid in it.

J. Bruner showed that, without a visual picture, in purely theoretical terms, preschoolers know that the amount of water does not change from transfusion. But each property of a thing for a child of this age is presented in a visual plan, and the level of liquid that they see becomes an indicator of its entire amount.

Question number 3

Age periodization of the child's mental development.

Age - a qualitatively unique period of physical, psychological or behavioral development, characterized by its inherent features.

IN ides of ages:

Biological - the degree of maturation of the organism, the state of the nervous system and GNI are determined.

Social - determined by the level of social roles, human functions (16 years - rights and responsibilities).

Psychological - features of psychology and behavior, qualitative changes in mental development - the level of psychological development achieved by this time.

Physical - characterizes the time of a child's life in years, months and days that have passed since his birth.

Periodization - division of the life cycle into separate periods or age stages.

Periodization of L.S. Vygotsky

Basic concepts of Vygotsky's theory. Vygotsky views development primarily as the emergence of something new. Development stages are characterized by age-related neoplasms, i.e. qualities or properties that were not previously in the finished form. The source of development, according to Vygotsky, is the social environment. The child's interaction with his social environment, which educates and educates him, determines the emergence of age-related neoplasms.

Vygotsky introduces the concept "Social development situation" - specific for each age relationship between the child and the social environment. The environment becomes completely different when the child moves from one stage of age to the next.

Dynamics of age development. L.S. Vygotsky identifies stable and crisis stages of development.

The stable period is characterized by a smooth course of the development process, without abrupt shifts and changes in the personality of the child. Stable periods make up most of childhood. They usually last for several years. And age-related neoplasms that form so slowly and for a long time turn out to be stable, are fixed in the structure of the personality.

In addition to stable ones, there are crisis periods of development. These are brief but tumultuous stages during which significant developmental shifts occur. Crises do not last long, several months, with an unfavorable set of circumstances stretching up to a year or even two years.

During periods of crisis, the main contradictions intensify: on the one hand, between the increased needs of the child and his still limited abilities, on the other, between the new needs of the child and the previously established relationships with adults.

Periods of child development. Crisis and stable periods of development alternate. Therefore, the age periodization of L.S. Vygotsky has the following form:

Neonatal crisis;

Infant age (2 months-1 year) - crisis of 1 year;

Early childhood (1-3 years) - crisis 3 years;

Preschool age (3-7 years) - crisis 7 years;

School age (8-12 years old) - crisis 13 years old;

Puberty (14-17 years old) - crisis 17 years.

Periodization D.B. Elkonin

D.B. Elkonin created periodization based on the ideas of Vygotsky and Leontiev. Based on a change in the leading type of activity. Among the types of leading activities, Elkonin distinguishes two groups.

To the first group includes activities that orient the child to the norms of relations between people:

    direct emotional communication of the infant,

    preschooler role play

    intimate and personal communication of a teenager.

Activities of the first type are associated with the child-adult relationship system.

Second groupmake up the leading activities, thanks to which methods of action with objects are mastered:

    subject-manipulative activity of a young child,

    educational activity of a younger student

    educational and professional activities of a senior pupil.

Activities of the second type are associated with the child-object relationship system.

According to Elkonin, each age is characterized by

    social development situation;

    leading activity;

    age-related neoplasms.

Crises - turning points in a child's development serve as age boundaries.

Periodization of child development... According to Elkonin's periodization, the process of child development as a whole can be divided into stages (larger temporary formations), which include periods of child development.

Stages of child development. Childhood, spanning the period from birth to graduation, is categorized by age into the following three stages:

Preschool childhood (from birth to 6-7 years old);

Junior school age (from 6-7 to 10-11 years old, from the first to the fourth-fifth grades of the school);

Middle and senior school age (from 10-11 to 16-17 years old, from the fifth to the eleventh grade of the school).

Periods of child development. The whole process of child development in general can be divided into seven periods:

1. Infancy: from birth to 1 year of life.

2. Early childhood: from 1 year to 3 years.

3. Younger and middle preschool age: from 3 to 4-5 years.

4. Senior preschool age: from 4-5 to 6-7 years.

5. Junior school age: 6-7 to 10-11 years old.

6. Adolescence: from 10-11 to 13-14 years old.

7. Early adolescence: from 13-14 to 16-17 years old.

Each of these age periods has its own characteristics, requires its own style of communication with children, the use of special techniques and methods of teaching and upbringing.

1630 (33 per week) / 20.01.17 09:00

With the help of age periodization, an attempt is made to highlight the general laws of the human life cycle. Thanks to the breakdown into periods of the life path, it is easier to see the patterns of personality development due to the specifics of different age stages.
At the 1965 international symposium on developmental physiology, it was agreed to distinguish 7 periods of development in childhood and adolescence:

  1. Newborn - the first decade after birth (10 days).
  2. Infant age - from the 11th day upon reaching the year.
  3. Early childhood - 1-3 years.
  4. First childhood period - 3-8 years.
  5. Second childhood period - 8-11 and 8-12 years old (girls and boys, respectively).
  6. Teenage years - 12-15 years old and 13-16 years old (for girls and boys, respectively);
  7. Youth period - 16-20 years old and 17-21 years old (for girls and boys, respectively).

Depending on the criterion, psychological periodization marks different life periods of a person. But regardless of the chosen basis for periodization, most theories converge around the same age stages.

Stages of development according to Erickson

The psychologist from the United States E. Erickson identified several psychosocial stages in personality development that affect life from early childhood to adolescence.

Infancy - from birth to one year

Thanks to the mother's care at this moment, the foundations of the personality are laid, such as confidence, a sense of trust, inner certainty. The baby trusts the society, which is limited for him by the personality of the mother. But if the mother is untenable, unreliable, rejects the child, then suspicion is laid, a feeling of distrust.

Early childhood - 1-3 years

During this period, the baby learns to act independently - to crawl, stand, walk, eat, dress, wash, etc. At this stage, his identity can be expressed by the formula "myself". Reasonable permissiveness contributes to the formation of the baby's independence. If there is excessive custody or, conversely, parents expect too much from the child, what is beyond his capabilities, then in these cases he experiences self-doubt, doubt, shame, weakness and humiliation.

Age of games - 3-6 years

At the preschool stage, there is a conflict between guilt and initiative. Children begin to be interested in different professions, they willingly contact their peers, try new things, easily go to education and training, seeing a specific goal in front of them. The main sense of identity at this age is “I am what I will be”.By encouraging the child's fantasies, independence and undertakings, the development of initiative and creative abilities is strengthened, thus expanding the boundaries of his independence. If you restrict the child's activities and "strangle" him with control, then he will develop a sense of guilt. Children with a sense of guilt are constrained, passive, and will not be able to work productively in the future.

The development of a child's psyche is a complex, lengthy, continuous process that occurs due to the influence of various factors. It's fa ...

School age - 6-12 years old


At this age, the child seriously goes beyond the family circle, the process of systematic learning begins. Schoolchildren are absorbed in the process of learning: what, how and from what comes out. Now the child's identity can be characterized by the words “I am what I could learn”. In the process of schooling, children learn the rules of active participation and deliberate discipline. This period is dangerous in that a feeling of incompetence, inferiority, doubts about the status among peers or about their abilities may arise.

Youth - 12-19 or 13-20 years old for different sexes

This is the most important of the periods of psychosocial human development. Growing up from a child, but not yet an adult, a teenager at this time is faced with unfamiliar social roles and specific requirements. Teenagers strive to assess the world, to build their own attitude towards it, spontaneously seek answers to important questions for themselves: "who am I?", "Who do I want to become?" They are overwhelmed by a piercing sense of their own uselessness, aimlessness, mental discord, which sometimes throws them into negative self-identification and deviant behavior. Role confusion and an identity crisis make it difficult to choose between continuing education and seeking a career. Sometimes there are doubts about their gender identity. The success of overcoming the crisis of the adolescent period can be expressed in the appearance of a positive quality - fidelity, when a teenager, having made a choice, having found his way in life, remains true to the obligations entrusted to himself, he accepts the foundations of society and then adheres to them.

Patterns of child development and its periodization according to Vygotsky

The Soviet psychologist L. S. Vygotsky identified 4 main features or patterns of child development.
Cyclicity. The developmental process has a rather complex structure in time, the content and rate of development throughout childhood are constantly changing. So, the growth and intensive development at some point change to attenuation and deceleration. The value of a month in the development of an infant is much greater than the value of a month in a teenager, since in the first case the developmental cycle is more intense.
Uneven development of different aspects of the personality, for example, mental functions. In some periods, the mental function dominates, develops most intensively, while the development of other functions recedes into the shadows and depends only on the dominant function. In each age period, a restructuring of inter-functional connections begins, a new function comes to the fore, and new dependencies are established between the rest of the functions.
According to Vygotsky, there are two successive types of age periods: stable and critical. Here is the periodization he built:

  1. Newborn crisis.
  2. Infancy - 2-12 months.
  3. First year crisis.
  4. Early childhood - 1-3 years.
  5. The crisis is three years old.
  6. Preschool age - 3-7 years old.
  7. The crisis of seven years.
  8. School age is 8-12 years old.
  9. The crisis is 13 years old.
  10. Puberty age - 14-17 years.
  11. The crisis is 17 years old.

Periodization and leading activities according to Elkonin



The Soviet psychologist D. B. Elkonin believed that each age has its own system of types of activity, however, a leading activity occupies a special place in it. At the same time, the leading activity is not necessarily the activity that takes the child more time, but the one that is most important in terms of its importance for the development of the psyche. In accordance with the leading activities, Elkonin also identifies periods of child development:

When parents decide to make repairs in the children's room, then they will have to approach this especially carefully, because if the child is more than four years old, then he ...

  1. Infancy, when communication between a child and an adult is direct, emotional.
  2. Early age (1-3 years) with a predominance of objective activity.
  3. Preschool age (3-7 years old)with a predominance of role-playing games.
  4. Junior school age (8-12 years old) with the dominance of educational activities.
  5. Adolescence (11-15 years old) with personal and intimate communication with peers.
  6. Youth.

Within the activity itself, psychological neoplasms are distinguished. When one leading activity is replaced by another (for example, instead of the play activity of a preschooler, the educational activity of a younger student arises), then a crisis sets in. By their content, one can distinguish crises of relations, characteristic of 3 and 11 years, and crises of worldview, which fall on 1, 7 and 15 years.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

The Franco-Swiss psychologist J. Piaget put the stage of cognitive development, in other words, the level of intelligence, at the forefront.

Sensory-motor intelligence

It manifests itself from birth to one and a half to two years. During this period, the baby develops motor structures and feelings:sight, hearing, smell, tactile perception, manipulation, all this is done out of curiosity about the environment. For the baby, connections are opened between his actions and the result - to pull the diaper over himself and get to the cherished toy lying on it. He also begins to understand that other things exist independently of him, and constantly learns to distinguish himself from the rest of the world.

Representative (specific-operational) intelligence

It corresponds to the age of specific actions (2-11 years). The mental development of the baby reaches more high level... Here symbolic thinking develops, the internalization of actions begins, and semiotic functions (mental image, language) are formed. Visual figurative representations of objects are formed, which the baby designates no longer with direct actions, but with names.
At first, thinking has an illogical, subjective nature, but after 7 years sprouts are formed logical thinking... The developmental stages can change faster or slower due to the cultural and social environment, even if only to the extent to which they provide the child with suitable tasks and materials.
It is ineffective to transfer ready-made knowledge, for example, cramming correct answers, since development requires the manifestation of one's own activity in the design and regulation of cognitive processes. Sharing ideas, arguing and discussing with peers is also important for the development of thinking. During the transition to concrete-operational thinking, all mental processes, the ability to cooperate, and moral judgments are rebuilt. But these logical operations remain specific and apply only to real objects and manipulations over them, since the child's reality is represented by concrete content.

Formal operational intelligence


The period of formal operations, characteristic of formal-operational intelligence, falls on the age of 11-15, during which abstract thinking is formed. Formal-operational structures can be observed when a child begins to reason hypothetically without any concrete support and regardless of the content of the subject area.
The basis of the logic of adults is formal thought processes, it is on them that the simplest scientific thinking is based, which manipulates hypotheses and uses deduction. With the help of abstract thinking, a person manages to build inferences, using the rules of combinatorics and formal logic. Thanks to this, a teenager can understand a theory, build his own, touch the adult worldview, temporarily leaving the limits of his own experience. With the help of hypothetical reasoning, a teenager falls into the realm of the potentially possible, although his idealized ideas can not always be verified, therefore they remain contrary to the actual state of affairs.

The development of children's motor skills develops over time and is closely related to another process - the maturation of the cerebral cortex. Under motor skills by ...

Naive idealism

Piaget defined the cognitive egocentrism of adolescents as the "naive idealism" of the adolescent, who ascribes unlimited power to thinking, thus striving to make a more perfect world. But when a teenager takes on adult social roles, then he encounters obstacles, he has to take into account external circumstances. This is how the final intellectual decentration takes place in the new sphere.

Pedagogical periodization

Pedagogical periodization is associated with division educational institutions for preschool ( kindergarten and nursery) and school (all school stages). 6 periods are distinguished here:

  1. Infancy - from birth to one year.
  2. Early childhood - 1-3 years.
  3. Preschool period - 3-6 years.
  4. Junior school period - 6-10 years.
  5. The average school period is 10-15 years.
  6. Senior school period - 15-18 years.


Knowledge of the most important stages of the individual development of children and the problems arising at these stages is the most important condition for effective educational and educational workthat forms life skills that help to strengthen and maintain health.
Since there is no generally accepted definition of adolescence and adolescence, the UN began to consider people 10-19 years old as adolescents, and 15-24 years old as youth, which is used for statistics so as not to confuse the wording of UN member states. Adolescents and young people are collectively referred to as "young people" with an age range of 10-24 years. In the Convention on the Rights of the Child, all persons under the age of 18 are considered children.

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